Guide to Tipitaka
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Chapter I
What Is Vinaya Piñaka?
Vinaya Piñaka
Disciplinary and Procedural Rules for the Saügha
The Vinaya Piñaka is made up of rules of discipline laid down for regulating the conduct of the Buddha’s disciples who have been admitted as bhikkhus and bhikkhunnãs into the Order. These rules embody authoritative injunctions of the Buddha on modes of conduct and restraints on both physical and verbal actions. They deal with transgressions of discipline, and with various categories of restraints and admonitions in accordance with the nature of the offence.
(a) Seven Kinds of Transgression or Offence, âpatti
The rules of discipline rst laid down by the Buddha are called Målapaññatti (the root regulation); those supplemented later are known as Anupaññatti. Together they are known as Sikkhàpadas, rules of discipline. The act of transgressing these rules of discipline, thereby incurring a penalty by the guilty bhikkhu, is called âpatti, which means ‘reaching, committing’.
The offences for which penalties are laid down may be classi ed under seven categories depending on their nature:
(i) Pàràjika
(ii) Saüghàdisesa (iii) Thullaccaya
(iv) Pàcittiya
(v) Pàñidesanãya (vi) Dukkaña
(vii) Dubbhàsita.
An offence in the rst category of offences, Pàràjika, is classi ed as a grave offence, garukàpatti, which is irremediable, atekicchà and entails the falling off of the offender from bhikkhuhood.
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An offence in the second category, Saüghàdisesa, is also classied as a grave offence but it is remediable, satekicchà. The offender is put on a probationary period of penance, during which he has to undertake certain dif cult practices and after which he is rehabilitated by the Saügha assembly.
The remaining ve categories consist of light offences, lahukàpatti, which are remediable and incur the penalty of having to confess the transgression to another bhikkhu. After carrying out the prescribed penalty, the bhikkhu transgressor becomes cleansed of the offence.
(b) When and how the disciplinary rules were laid down.
For twenty years after the establishment of the Order there was neither injunction nor rule concerning Pàràjika and Saüghàdisesa offences. The members of the Order of the early days were all Ariyas, the least advanced of whom was a Stream-winner, one who had attained the rst Magga and Fruition, and there was no need for prescribing rules relating to grave offences.
But as the years went by, the Saügha grew in strength. Undesirable elements not having the purest of motives but attracted only by the fame and gain of the bhikkhus began to get into the Buddha’s Order. Some twenty years after the founding of the Order, it became necessary to begin establishing rules relating to grave offences.
It was through Bhikkhu Sudinna, a native of Kalanda Village
near Vesàlã, who committed the offence of having sexual intercourse
with his ex-wife, that the rst Pàràjika rule came to be promulgated.
It was laid down to deter bhikkhus from indulging in sexual inter-
course.
When such a grave cause had arisen for which the laying down of a prohibitory rule became necessary, the Buddha convened an assembly of the bhikkhus. It was only after questioning the bhikkhu concerned and after the undesirability of committing such an offence had been made clear that a certain rule was laid down in order to prevent future lapses of similar nature.
The Buddha also followed the precedence set by earlier Bud-
dhas. Using his supernormal powers, he re ected on what rules the earlier Buddhas would lay down under certain given conditions. Then
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he adopted similar regulations to meet the situation that had arisen in his time.
(c) Admission of bhikkhunãs into the Order
After spending four vassas (residence period during the rains) after his Enlightenment, the Buddha visited Kapilavatthu, his native royal city, at the request of his ailing father, King Suddhodana. At that time, Mahàpajàpati, Buddha’s foster mother, requested him to admit her into the Order. Mahàpajàpati was not alone in desiring to join the Order. Five hundred Sakyan ladies whose husbands had left the household life were also eager to be admitted into the Order.
After his father’s death, the Buddha went back to Vesàlã, refus-
ing the repeated request of Mahàpajàpati for admission into the
Order. The determined foster mother of the Buddha and widow of the
recently deceased King Suddhodana, having cut off her hair and put
on bark-dyed clothes, accompanied by ve hundred Sakyan ladies, made
her way to Vesàlã where the Buddha was staying in the Mahàvana, in
the Kåñàgàra Hall.
The Venerable ânanda saw them outside the gateway of the Kåñàgàra Hall, dust-laden with swollen feet, dejected, tearful, standing and weeping. Out of great compassion for the ladies, the Venerable ânanda interceded with the Buddha on their behalf and entreated him to accept them in the Order. The Buddha continued to stand rm. But when the Venerable ânanda asked the Buddha whether women were not capable of attaining Magga and Phala Insight, the Buddha replied that women were indeed capable of doing so, provided they left the household life like their menfolk.
Thereupon ânanda made his entreaties again saying that Mahàpajàpati had been of great service to the Buddha waiting on him as his guardian and nurse, suckling him when his mother died. And as women were capable of attaining the Magga and Phala Insight, she should be permitted to Join the Order and become a bhikkhunã.
The Buddha nally acceded to ânanda’s entreaties: “ânanda, if Mahàpajàpati accepts eight special rules, garu-dhammà, let such acceptance mean her admission to the Order.”
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The eight special rules1
are:
(i) A bhikkhunã, even if she enjoys a seniority of a hundred years
in the Order, must pay respect to a bhikkhu though he may
have been a bhikkhu only for a day.
(ii) A bhikkhunã must not keep her rains-residence in a place where
there are no bhikkhus.
(iii) Every fortnight a bhikkhunã must do two things: To ask the
bhikkhu Saügha the day of uposatha, and to approach the
bhikkhu Saügha for instruction and admonition.
(iv) When the rains-residence period is over, a bhikkhunã must
attend the pavàraõà ceremony conducted at both the assem-
blies of bhikkhus and bhikkhunãs, in each of which she must
invite criticism on what has been seen, what has been heard or
what has been suspected of her.
(v) A bhikkhunã who has committed a Saüghàdisesa offence must
undergo penance for a half-month, pakkha mànatta, in each
assembly of bhikkhus and bhikkhunãs.
(vi) Admission to the Order must be sought, from both assemblies,
by a woman novice only after two year’s probationary training
as a candidate.
(vii) A bhikkhunã should not revile a bhikkhu in any way, not even
obliquely.
(viii) Abhikkhunã must abide by instructions given her by bhikkhus,
but must not give instructions or advice to bhikkhus.
Mahàpajàpati accepted unhesitatingly these eight conditions
imposed by the Buddha and was consequently admitted into the
Order.
1 1. vide, Vinaya - II, 74 -75.
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Chapter II
Vinaya Piñaka
The Vinaya Piñaka is made up of ve books:
(1) Pàràjika Pàëi
(2) Pàcittiya Pàëi
(3) Mahàvagga Pàëi
(4) Cåëavagga Pàëi
(5) Parivàra Pàëi
1. Pàràjika Pàëi
Pàràjika Pàëi which is Book I of the Vinaya Piñaka gives an elaborate explanation of the important rules of discipline concerning Pàràjika and Saüghàdisesa, as well as Aniyata and Nissaggiya which are minor offences.
(a) Pàràjika offences and penalties.
Pàràjika discipline consists of four sets of rules laid down to prevent four grave offences. Any transgressor of these rules is defeated in his purpose in becoming a bhikkhu. In the parlance of Vinaya, the Pàràjika âpatti falls upon him; he automatically loses the status of a bhikkhu; he is no longer recognized as a member of the community of bhikkhus and is not permitted to become a bhikkhu again. He has either to go back to the household life as a layman or revert back to the status of a sàmaõera, a novice.
One who has lost the status of a bhikkhu for transgression of any of these rules is likened to (i) a person whose head has been cut off from his body; he cannot become alive even if the head is xed back on the body; (ii) leaves which have fallen off the branches of the tree; they will not become green again even if they are attached back to the leaf-stalks; (iii) a at rock which has been split; it cannot be made whole again; (iv) a palm tree which has been cut off from its stem; it will never grow again.
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Four Pàràjika offences which lend to loss of status as a bhikkhu.
(i) The rst Pàràjika: Whatever bhikkhu should indulge in sexual
intercourse loses his bhikkhuhood.
(ii) The second Pàràjika: Whatever bhikkhu should take with intention
to steal what is not given loses his bhikkhuhood.
(iii) The third Pàràjika: Whatever bhikkhu should intentionally deprive
a human being of life loses his bhikkhuhood.
(iv) The fourth Pàràjika: Whatever bhikkhu claims to attainments he
does not really possess, namely, attainments to jhàna or Magga
and Phala Insight loses his bhikkhuhood.
The Pàràjika offender is guilty of a very grave transgression. He ceases to be a bhikkhu. His offence, âpatti, is irremediable.
(b) Thirteen Saüghàdisesa offences and penalties.
Saüghàdisesa discipline consists of a set of thirteen rules which require formal participation of the Saügha from beginning to end in the process of making him free from the guilt of transgression.
(i) A bhikkhu having transgressed these rules, and wishing to be
free from his offence must rst approach the Saügha and con-
fess having committed the offence. The Saügha determines his
offence and orders him to observe the parivàsa penance, a penalty
requiring him to live under suspension from association with the
rest of the Saügha, for as many days as he has knowingly con-
cealed his offence.
(ii) At the end of the parivàsa observance he undergoes a further
period of penance, mànatta, for six days to gain approbation of
the Saügha.
(iii) Having carried out the mànatta penance, the bhikkhu requests
the Saügha to reinstate him to full association with the rest of the
Saügha.
Being now convinced of the purity of his conduct as before, the Saügha lifts the âpatti at a special congregation attended by at least twenty bhikkhus, where ñatti, the motion for his reinstatement, is recited followed by three recitals of kammavàcà, procedural text for formal acts of the Saügha.
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Some examples of the Saüghàdisesa offences. (i) Kàyasaüsagga offence:
If any bhikkhu with lustful, perverted thoughts engages in bodily contact with a woman, such as holding of hands, caressing the tresses of hair or touching any part of her body, he commits the Kàyasaüsagga Saüghàdisesa offence.
(ii) Sañcaritta offence:
If any bhikkhu acts as a go-between between a man and a woman for their lawful living together as husband and wife or for temporary arrangement as man and mistress or woman and lover, he is guilty of Sañcaritta Saüghàdisesa offence.
(c) Two Aniyata offences and penalties.
Aniyata means inde nite, uncertain. There are two Aniyata offences the nature of which is uncertain and inde nite as to whether it is a Pàràjika offence, a Saüghàdisesa offence or a Pàcittiya offence. It is to be determined according to provisions in the following rules:
(i) If a bhikkhu sits down privately alone with a woman in a place
which is secluded and hidden from view, and convenient for
an immoral purpose and if a trustworthy lay woman (i.e., an
Ariya), seeing him, accuses him of any one of the three offences
(1) a Pàràjika offence (2) a Saüghàdisesa offence (3) a Pàcittiya offence, and the bhikkhu himself admits that he was so sitting, he should be found guilty of one of these three offences as accused by the trustworthy lay woman.
(ii) If a bhikkhu sits down privately alone with a woman in a place
which is not hidden from view and not convenient for an immoral
purpose but convenient for talking lewd words to her, and if a
trustworthy lay woman (i.e., an Ariya), seeing him, accuses him
of any one of the two offences (1) a Saüghàdisesa offence (2) a
Pàcittiya offence, and the bhikkhu himself admits that he was so
sitting, he should be found guilty of one of these two offences as
accused by the trustworthy lay woman.
(d) Thirty Nissaggiya Pàcittiya offences and penalties.
There are thirty rules under the Nissaggiya category of offences and penalties which are laid down to curb inordinate greed in
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bhikkhus for possession of material things such as robes, bowls etc. To give an example, an offence is done under these rules when objects not permitted are acquired, or when objects are acquired in more than the permitted quantity. The penalty consists rstly of giving up the objects in respect of which the offence has been committed. Then it is followed by confession of the breach of the rule, together with an undertaking not to repeat the same offence, to the Saügha as a whole, or to a group of bhikkhus, or to an individual bhikkhu to whom the wrongfully acquired objects have been surrendered.
Some examples of the Nissaggiya Pàcittiya offences. (i) First Nissaggiya Sikkhàpada.
If any bhikkhu keeps more than the permissible number of robes, namely, the lower robe, the upper robe and the great robe, he commits an offence for which he has to surrender the extra robes and confess his offence.
(ii) Cãvara Acchindana Sikkhàpada.
If any bhikkhu gives away his own robe to another bhikkhu and afterwards, being angry or displeased, takes it back forcibly or causes it to be taken away by someone else, he commits a Nissaggiya Pàcittiya offence.
Nissaggiya offences are light offences compared with the grave offences of Pàràjika âpatti or Saüghàdisesa âpatti.
2. Pàcittiya Pàëi
The Pàcittiya Pàëi which is Book II of the Vinaya Piñaka deals with the remaining sets of rules for the bhikkhus, namely, the Pàcittiya, the Pàñidesanãya, Sekhiya, Adhikaraõasamatha and the corresponding disciplinary rules for the bhikkhunãs. Although it is called in Pàëi just Pàcittiya, it has the distinctive name of ‘Suddha Pàcittiya’, ordinary Pàcittiya, to distinguish it from Nissaggiya Pàcittiya, described above.
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(a) Ninety-two Pàcittiya offences and penalties.
There are ninety-two rules under this class of offences classi ed in nine sections. A few examples of this type of offences:
(i) Telling a lie deliberately is a Pàcittiya offence.
(ii) A bhikkhu who sleeps under the same roof and within the
walls along with a woman commits a Pàcittiya offence.
(iii) A bhikkhu who digs the ground or causes it to be dug com-
mits a Pàcittiya offence.
A Pàcittiya offence is remedied merely by admission of the offence to a bhikkhu.
(b) Four Pàñidesanãya offences and penalties.
There are four offences under this classi cation and they all deal with the bhikkhu’s conduct in accepting and eating alms-food offered to him. The bhikkhu transgressing any of these rules, in making admission of his offence, must use a special formula stating the nature of his fault.
The rst rule of Pàñidesanãya offence reads: should a bhikkhu eat hard food or soft food having accepted it with his own hand from a bhikkhunã who is not his relation and who has gone among the houses for alms-food, it should be admitted to another bhikkhu by the bhikkhu saying, “Friend, I have done a censurable thing which is unbecoming and which should be admitted. I admit having committed a Pàtidesanãya offence.”
The events that led to the laying down of the rst of these rules happened in Sàvatthi, where one morning bhikkhus and bhikkhunãs were going round for alms-food. A certain bhikkhunã offered the food she had received to a certain bhikkhu who took away all that was in her bowl. The bhikkhunã had to go without any food for the day. Three days in succession she offered to give her alms-food to the same bhikkhu who on all the three days deprived her of her entire alms-
food. Consequently she became famished. On the fourth day while going on the alms round she fainted and fell down through weakness. When the Buddha came to hear about this, he censured the bhikkhu who was guilty of the wrong deed and laid down the above rule.
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(c) Seventy- ve Sekhiya rules of polite behaviour.
These seventy- ve rules laid down originally for the proper
behaviour of bhikkhus also apply to novices who seek admission to the
Order. Most of these rules were all laid down at Sàvatthi on account
of indisciplined behaviour on the part of a group of six bhikkhus. The
rules can be divided into four groups. The rst group of twenty-six
rules is concerned with good conduct and behaviour when going into
towns and villages. The second group of thirty rules deals with polite
manners when accepting alms-food and when eating meals. The third
group of sixteen rules contains rules which prohibit teaching of the
Dhamma to disrespectful people. The fourth group of three rules
relates to unbecoming ways of answering the calls of nature and of
spitting.
(d) Seven ways of settling disputes, Adhikaraõasamatha.
Pàcittiya Pàëi concludes the disciplinary rules for bhikkhus with a Chapter on seven ways of settling cases, Adhikaraõasamatha.
Four kinds of cases are listed:
(i) Vivàdàdhikaraõa — Disputes as to what is dhamma, what is not
dhamma; what is Vinaya, what is not Vinaya; what the Buddha
said, what the Buddha did not say; and what constitutes an
offence, what is not an offence.
(ii) Anuvàdàdhikaraõa — Accusations and disputes arising out of
them concerning the virtue, practice, views and way of living of a
bhikkhu.
(iii) âpattàdhikaraõa — Infringement of any disciplinary rule.
(iv) Kiccàdhikaraõa — Formal meeting or decisions made by the Saügha.
For settlement of such disputes that may arise from time to
time amongst the Order, precise and detailed methods are prescribed under seven heads:
(i) Sammukhà Vinaya — before coming to a decision, conducting an
enquiry in the presence of both parties in accordance with the
rules of Vinaya.
(ii) Sati Vinaya — making a declaration by the Saügha of the inno-
cence of an Arahat against whom some allegations have been
made, after asking him if he remembers having committed the
offence.
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(iii) Amåëha Vinaya — making a declaration by the Saügha when the
accused is found to be insane.
(iv) Patiññàta Karaõa — making a decision after admission by the
party concerned.
(v) Yebhuyyasika Kamma — making a decision in accordance with
the majority vote.
(vi) Tassapàpiyasika Kamma — making a declaration by the Saügha
when the accused proves to be unreliable, making admissions
only to retract them, evading questions and telling lies.
(vii) Tiõavatthàraka Kamma — ‘the act of covering up with grass’
— exonerating all offences except the offences of Pàràjika,
Saüghàdisesa and those in connection with laymen and lay-
women, when the disputing parties are made to reconcile by the
Saügha.
(e) Rules of Discipline for the bhikkhunãs.
The concluding chapters in the Pàcittiya Pàëi are devoted to the rules of Discipline for the bhikkhunãs. The list of rules for bhikkhunãs runs longer than that for the bhikkhus. The bhikkhunã rules were drawn up on exactly the same lines as those for the bhikkhus, with the exception of the two Aniyata rules which are not laid down for the bhikkhunã Order.
Bhikkhu Bhikkhunã
(1) Pàràjika 4 8
(2) Saüghàdisesa 13 17
(3) Aniyata 2 —
(4) Nissaggiya Pàcittiya 30 30
(5) Suddha Pàcittiya 92 166
(6) Pàñidesanãya 4 8
(7) Sekhiya 75 75
(8) Adhikaraõasamatha 7 7
227 311
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These eight categories of disciplinary rules for bhikkhus and bhikkhunãs of the Order are treated in detail in the rst two books of the Vinaya Piñaka. For each rule an historical account is given as to how it comes to be laid down, followed by an exhortation of the Buddha ending with “This offence does not lead to rousing of faith in those who are not convinced of the Teaching, nor to increase of faith in those who are convinced.” After the exhortation comes the particular rule laid down by the Buddha followed by word for word commentary on the rule.
3. Mahàvagga Pàëi.
The next two books, namely, Mahàvagga Pàëi which is Book III and Cåëavagga Pàëi which is Book IV of the Vinaya Piñaka, deal with all those matters relating to the Saügha which have not been dealt with in the rst two books.
Mahàvagga Pàëi, made up of ten sections known as Khandha-
kas, opens with an historical account of how the Buddha attained Supreme Enlightenment at the foot of the Bodhi Tree, how he dis-
covered the famous law of Dependent Origination, how he gave his
rst sermon to the Group of Five Bhikkhus on the discovery of the
Four Noble Truths, namely, the great Discourse on the Turning of
the Wheel of Dhamma, Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta. This was fol-
lowed by another great discourse, the Anattalakkhaõa Sutta. These
two suttas may be described as the Compendium of the Teaching of
the Buddha.
The rst section continues to describe how young men of good families like Yasa sought refuge in him as a Buddha and embraced his Teaching; how the Buddha embarked upon the unique mission of spreading the Dhamma ‘for the welfare and happiness of the many’ when he had collected round him sixty disciples who were well estab-
lished in the Dhamma and had become Arahats; how he began to establish the Order of the Saügha to serve as a living example of the Truth he preached; and how his famous disciples like Sàriputta, Moggallàna, Mahà Kassapa, ânanda, Upàli, Aïgulimàla became mem-
bers of the Order. The same section then deals with the rules for
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formal admission to the Order, (Upasampadà), giving precise conditions to be ful lled before any person can gain admission to the Order and the procedure to be followed for each admission.
Mahàvagga further deals with procedures for an Uposatha meet-
ing, the assembly of the Saügha on every full moon day and on the fourteenth or fteenth waning day of the lunar month when Pàtimokkha, a summary of the Vinaya rules, is recited. Then there are rules to be observed for rains retreat (vassa) during the rainy season as well as those for the formal ceremony of pavàraõà concluding the rains retreat, in which a bhikkhu invites criticism from his brethren in respect of what has been seen, heard or suspected about his conduct.
There are also rules concerning sick bhikkhus, the use of leather for footwear and furniture, materials for robes, and those concerning medicine and food. A separate section deals with the Kathina ceremonies where annual making and offering of robes take place.
4. Cåëavagga Pàëi
Cåëavagga Pàëi which is Book IV of the Vinaya Piñaka continues to deal with more rules and procedures for institutional acts or func-
tions known as Saüghakamma. The twelve sections in this book deal with rules for offences such as Saüghàdisesa that come before the Saügha; rules for observance of penances such as parivàsa and mànatta and rules for reinstatement of a bhikkhu. There are also mis-
cellaneous rules concerning bathing, dress, dwellings and furniture and those dealing with treatment of visiting bhikkhus, and duties of tutors and novices. Some of the important enactments are concerned with Tajjanãya Kamma, formal act of censure by the Saügha taken against those bhikkhus who cause strife, quarrels, disputes, who asso-
ciate familiarly with lay people and who speak in dispraise of the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saügha; Ukkhepanãya Kamma, formal act of suspension to be taken against those who having committed an offence do not want to admit it; and Pakàsanãya Kamma taken against Devadatta announcing publicly that “Whatever Devadatta does by deed or word, should be seen as Devadatta’s own and has nothing to do with the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saügha.” The account of
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this action is followed by the story of Devadatta’s three attempts on the life of the Buddha and the schism caused by Devadatta among the Saügha.
There is, in section ten, the story of how Mahàpajàpati, the Buddha’s foster mother, requested admission into the Order, how the Buddha refused permission at rst, and how he nally acceded to the request because of ânanda’s entreaties on her behalf.
The last two sections describe two important events of historical interest, namely, the holding of the rst Synod at Ràjagaha and of the second Synod at Vesàlã.
5. Parivàra Pàëi
Parivàra Pàëi which is Book V and the last book of the Vinaya Piñaka serves as a kind of manual. It is compiled in the form of a cate-
chism, enabling the reader to make an analytical survey of the Vinaya Piñaka. All the rules, of cial acts, and other matters of the Vinaya are classi ed under separate categories according to subjects dealt with.
Parivàra explains how rules of the Order are drawn up to regulate the conduct of the bhikkhus as well as the administrative affairs of the Order. Precise procedures are prescribed for settling of disputes and handling matters of jurisprudence, for formation of Saügha courts and appointment of well-quali ed Saügha judges. It lays down how Saügha Vinicchaya Committee, the Saügha court, is to be constituted with a body of learned Vinayadharas, experts in Vinaya rules, to hear and decide all kinds of monastic disputes.
The Parivàra Pàëi provides general principles and guidance in the spirit of which all the Saügha Vinicchaya proceedings are to be conducted for settlement of monastic disputes.
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Chapter III
What Is Suttanta Piñaka?
The Suttanta Piñaka is a collection of all the discourses in their
entirety delivered by the Buddha on various occasions. (A few dis-
courses delivered by some of the distinguished disciples of the Buddha,
such as the Venerable Sàriputta, Mahà Moggallàna, ânanda, etc., as
well as some narratives are also included in the books of the Suttanta
Piñaka.) The discourses of the Buddha compiled together in the Sut-
tanta Piñaka were expounded to suit different occasions, for various
persons with different temperaments. Although the discourses were
mostly intended for the bene t of bhikkhus, and deal with the practice
of the pure life and with the exposition of the Teaching, there are also
several other discourses which deal with the material and moral progress
of the lay disciples.
The Suttanta Piñaka brings out the meaning of the Buddha’s teachings, expresses them clearly, protects and guards them against distortion and misconstruction. Just like a string which serves as a plumb-line to guide the carpenters in their work, just like a thread which protects owers from being scattered or dispersed when strung together by it, likewise by means of suttas, the meaning of Buddha’s teachings may be brought out clearly, grasped and understood correctly and given perfect protection from being misconstrued.
The Suttanta Piñaka is divided into ve separate collections known as Nikàyas. They are Dãgha Nikàya, Majjhima Nikàya, Saüyutta Nikàya, Aïguttara Nikàya and Khuddaka Nikàya.
(a) Observances and Practices in the Teaching of the Buddha.
In the Suttanta Piñaka are found not only the fundamentals of the Dhamma but also pragmatic guidelines to make the Dhamma meaningful and applicable to daily life. All observances and practices which form practical steps in the Buddha’s Noble Path of Eight Constituents lead to spiritual puri cation at three levels:
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Sãla — moral purity through right conduct,
Samàdhi — purity of mind through concentration (Samatha),
Paññà — purity of Insight through Vipassanà Meditation.
To begin with, one must make the right resolution to take refuge in the Buddha, to follow the Buddha’s Teaching, and to be guided by the Saügha. The rst disciples who made the declaration of faith in the Buddha and committed themselves to follow his Teaching were the two merchant brothers, Tapussa and Bhallika. They were travel-
ling with their followers in ve hundred carts when they saw the Buddha in the vicinity of the Bodhi Tree after his Enlightenment. The two merchants offered him honey rice cakes. Accepting their offering and thus breaking the fast he had imposed on himself for seven weeks, the Buddha made them his disciples by letting them recite after him:
“Buddhaü Saranaü Gacchàmi (I take refuge in the Buddha).” “Dhammaü Saranaü Gacchàmi (I take refuge in the Dhammà).”
This recitation became the formula of declaration of faith in the Buddha and his Teaching. Later when the Saügha became established, the formula was extended to include the third commitment:
“Saüghaü Saranaü Gacchàmi (I take refuge in the Saügha).”
(b) On the right way to give alms.
As a practical step, capable of immediate and fruitful use by
people in all walks of life, the Buddha gave discourses on charity,
alms-giving, explaining its virtues and on the right way and the right
attitude of mind with which an offering is to be made for spiritual
uplift.
The motivating force in an act of charity is the volition, the will to give. Charity is a meritorious action that arises only out of volition. Without the will to give, there is no act of giving. Volition in giving alms is of three types:
(i) The volition that starts with the thought ‘I shall make an offering’
and that exists during the period of preparations for making the
offering — Pubba Cetanà, volition before the act.
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(ii) The volition that arises at the moment of making the offering
while handing it over to the donee — Muñca Cetanà, volition
during the act.
(iii) The volition accompanying the joy and rejoicing which arise
during repeated recollection of or re ection on the act of giving —
Apara Cetanà, volition after the act.
Whether the offering is made in homage to the living Buddha
or to a minute particle of his relics after his passing away, it is the voli-
tion, its strength and purity that determine the nature of the result
thereof.
There is also explained in the discourses the wrong attitude of mind with which no act of charity should be performed.
A donor should avoid looking down on others who cannot make a similar offering; nor should he exult over his own charity. De led by such unworthy thoughts, his volition is only of inferior grade.
When the act of charity is motivated by expectations of bene cial results of immediate prosperity and happiness, or rebirth in higher existences, the accompanying volition is classed as mediocre.
It is only when the good deed of alms-giving is performed out of a spirit of renunciation, motivated by thoughts of pure sel essness, aspiring only for attainment to Nibbàna where all suffering ends, that the volition that brings about the act is regarded as of superior grade.
Examples abound in the discourses concerning charity and modes of giving alms.
(c) Moral Purity through right conduct, Sãla.
Practice of Sãla forms a most fundamental aspect of Buddhism.
It consists of practice of Right Speech, Right Action and Right Liveli-
hood to purge oneself of impure deeds, words and thoughts. Together
with the commitment to the Threefold Refuge (as described above) a
Buddhist lay disciple observes the Five Precepts by making a formal
vow:
(i) I undertake to observe the precept of abstaining from killing. (ii) I undertake to observe the precept of abstaining from stealing.
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(iii) I undertake to observe the precept of abstaining from sexual mis-
conduct.
(iv) I undertake to observe the precept of abstaining from telling lies. (v) I undertake to observe the precept of abstaining from alcoholic
drinks, drugs or intoxicants that becloud the mind.
In addition to the negative aspect of the above formula which emphasizes abstinence, there is also the positive aspect of Sãla. For instance, we nd in many discourses the statement: ‘He refrains from killing, puts aside the cudgel and the sword; full of kindness and compassion he lives for the welfare and happiness of all living things.’ Every precept laid down in the formula has these two aspects.
Depending upon the individual and the stage of one’s progress, other forms of precepts, namely, Eight Precepts, Ten Precepts etc. may be observed. For the bhikkhus of the Order, higher and advanced types of practices of morality are laid down. The Five Precepts are to be always observed by lay disciples who may occasionally enhance their self-discipline by observing the Eight or Ten Precepts. For those who have already embarked on the path of a holy life, the Ten Precepts are essential preliminaries to further progress.
Sãla of perfect purity serves as a foundation for the next stage of progress, namely, Samàdhi purity of mind through concentrationmeditation.
(d) Practical methods of mental cultivation for development of concen-
tration, samàdhi.
Mental cultivation for spiritual uplift consists of two steps. The rst step is to purify the mind from all de lements and corruption and to have it focused on a point. A determined effort (Right Exertion) must be made to narrow down the range of thoughts in the wavering, unsteady mind. Then attention (Right Mindfulness or Attentiveness) must be xed on a selected object of meditation until one-pointedness of mind (Right Concentration) is achieved. In such a state, the mind becomes freed from hindrances, pure, tranquil, powerful and bright.
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It is then ready to advance to the second step by which Magga Insight and Fruition may be attained in order to transcend the state of woe and sorrow.
The Suttanta Piñaka records numerous methods of meditation
to bring about one-pointedness of mind. In the Suttas of the Piñaka
are dispersed these methods of meditation, explained by the Buddha
sometimes singly, sometimes collectively to suit the occasion and the
purpose for which they are recommended. The Buddha knew the
diversity of character and mental make-up of each individual, the
different temperaments and inclinations of those who approached
him for guidance. Accordingly he recommended different methods
to different persons to suit the special character and need of each
individual.
The practice of mental cultivation which results ultimately in
one-pointedness of mind is known as Samàdhi Bhàvanà. Whoever
wishes to develop Samàdhi Bhàvanà must have been established in
the observance of the precepts, with the senses controlled, calm and
self-possessed, and must be contented. Having been established in
these four conditions he selects a place suitable for meditation, a
secluded spot. Then he should sit cross-legged keeping his body erect
and his mind alert; he should start purifying his mind of ve hin-
drances, namely, sensual desire, ill will, sloth and torpor, restlessness
and worry, and doubt, by choosing a meditation method suitable to
him, practicing meditation with zeal and ardour. For instance, with
the ânàpàna method he keeps watching the incoming and outgoing
breath until he can have his mind xed securely on the breath at the
tip of the nose.
When he realizes that the ve hindrances have been got rid of, he becomes gladdened, delighted, calm and blissful. This is the beginning of samàdhi, concentration, which will further develop until it attains one-pointedness of mind.
Thus one-pointedness of mind is concentration of mind when it is aware of one object, and only one of a wholesome, salutary nature. This is attained by the practice of meditation upon one of the subjects recommended for the purpose by the Buddha.
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(e) Practical methods of mental cultivation for development of Insight
Knowledge, paññà.
The subject and methods of meditation as taught in the suttas of the Piñaka are designed both for attainment of samàdhi as well as for development of Insight Knowledge, Vipassanà ¥àõa, as a direct path to Nibbàna.
As a second step in the practice of meditation, after achieving samàdhi, when the concentrated mind has become puri ed, rm and imperturbable, the meditator directs and inclines his mind to Insight Knowledge, Vipassanà ¥àõa. With this Insight Knowledge he discerns the three characteristics of the phenomenal world, namely, Impermanence (Anicca), Suffering (Dukkha) and Non-Self (Anatta).
As he advances in his practice and his mind becomes more and more puri ed, rm and imperturbable, he directs and inclines his mind to the knowledge of the extinction of moral intoxicants, âsavakkhaya ¥àõa. He then truly understands dukkha, the cause of dukkha, the cessation of dukkha and the path leading to the cessation of dukkha. He also comes to understand fully the moral intoxicants (àsavas) as they really are, the cause of àsavas, the cessation of àsavas and the path leading to the cessation of the àsavas.
With this knowledge of extinction of àsavas he becomes liberated. The knowledge of liberation arises in him. He knows that rebirth is no more, that he has lived the holy life; he has done what he has to do for the realization of Magga; there is nothing more for him to do for such realization.
The Buddha taught with only one object — the extinction of Suffering and release from conditioned existence. That object is to be obtained by the practice of meditation (for Calm and Insight) as laid down in numerous suttas of the Suttanta Piñaka.
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Chapter IV
Suttanta Piñaka
Dãgha Nikàya
Collection of Long Discourses of the Buddha
This Collection in the Suttanta Piñaka, named Dãgha Nikàya as it is made up of thirty-four long discourses of the Buddha, is divided into three divisions: (a) Sãlakkhandha Vagga, Division Concerning Morality (b) Mahà Vagga, the Large Division (c) Pàthika Vagga, the Division beginning with the discourse on Pàthika, the Naked Ascetic.
(a) Sãlakkhandha Vagga Pàëi
Division Concerning Morality
This division contains thirteen suttas which deal extensively with various types of morality, namely, Minor Morality, basic morality applicable to all; Middle Morality and Major Morality which are mostly practised by Samaõas and Bràhmaõas. It also discusses the wrong views then prevalent as well as brahmin views of sacri ce and caste, and various religious practices such as extreme self-morti cation.
(1) Brahmajàla Sutta, Discourse on the Net of Perfect Wisdom.
An argument between Suppiya, a wandering ascetic, and his pupil Brahmadatta, with the teacher maligning the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saügha and the pupil praising the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saügha, gave rise to this famous discourse which is listed rst in this Nikàya.
In connection with the maligning of the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saügha, the Buddha enjoined his disciples not to feel resentment, nor displeasure nor anger, because it would only be spiritually harmful to them. As to the words of praise for the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saügha, the Buddha advised his disciples not to feel pleased, delighted or elated, for it would be an obstacle to their progress in the Path.
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The Buddha said that whatever worldling, puthujjana, praised
the Buddha he could not do full justice to the peerless virtues of the
Buddha, namely, his Superior Concentration, samàdhi, and Wisdom,
paññà. A worldling could touch on only “matters of a tri ing and infe-
rior nature, mere morality.” The Buddha explained the three grades
of morality and said there were other dhammas profound, hard to see,
subtle and intelligible only to the wise. Anyone wishing to praise cor-
rectly the true virtues of the Buddha should do so only in terms of
these dhammas.
Then the Buddha continued to expound on various wrong views. There were samaõas and bràhmaõas who, speculating on the past, adhered to and asserted their wrong views in eighteen different ways, namely:
(i) Four Kinds of Belief in Eternity, Sassata Diññhi,
(ii) Four Kinds of Dualistic belief in Eternity and Non-eternity,
Ekacca Sassata Diññhi,
(iii) Four Views of the World being Finite or In nite, Antànanta
Diññhi,
(iv) Four Kinds of ambiguous evasion, Amaràvikkhepa Vàda,
(v) Two Doctrines of Non-Causality, Adhiccasamuppanna Vàda.
There were samaõas and bràhmaõas, who, speculating on the
future, adhered to and asserted their wrong views in forty-four ways, namely:
(i) Sixteen Kinds of Belief in the Existence of Saññà after death,
Uddhàmàghàtanika Saññã Vàda,
(ii) Eight Kinds of Belief in the Non-Existence of Saññà after death,
Uddhamàghàtanika Asaññã Vàda,
(iii)Eight Kinds of Belief in the Existence of Neither Saññà Nor Non-
saññà after death, Uddhamàghàtanika Nevasaññã Nàsaññã Vàda,
(iv)Seven Kinds of Belief in Annihilation, Uccheda Vàda,
(v) Five Kinds of Mundane Nibbàna as realizable in this very life,
Diññhadhamma Nibbàna Vàda.
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The Buddha said that whatever samaõas and bràhmaõas speculated on the past, or the future or both the past and the future, they did so in these sixty-two ways or one of these sixty-two ways.
The Buddha announced further that he knew all these wrong views and also what would be the destination, the next existence, in which the one holding these views would be reborn.
The Buddha gave a detailed analysis of these wrong views asserted in sixty-two ways and pointed out that these views had their origin in feeling which arose as a result of repeated contact through the six sense bases. Whatever person holds these wrong views, in him feeling gives rise to craving; craving gives rise to clinging; clinging gives rise to existence; the kammic causal process in existence gives rise to rebirth; and rebirth gives rise to ageing, death, grief, lamentation, pain, distress and despair.
But whatever person knows, as they really are, the origin of the six sense bases of contact, their cessation, their pleasurableness, their danger and the way of escape from them, he realizes the dhammas, not only mere morality, sãla, but also concentration, samàdhi, and lib-
eration, vimutti, wisdom, paññà, that transcend all these wrong views.
All the samaõas and bràhmaõas holding the sixty-two categories of wrong views are caught in the net of this discourse just like all the sh in a lake are contained in a nely meshed net spread by a skilful sherman or his apprentice.
(2) Sàmaññaphala Sutta, Discourse on the Fruits of the Life of a
Samaõa
On one full moon night while the Buddha was residing in Ràjagaha at the mango grove of Jãvaka this discourse on the fruits of the life of a samaõa, personally experienced in this very life, was taught to King Ajàtasattu on request by him. The Buddha explained to him the advantage of the life of a samaõa by giving him the examples of a servant of his household or a landholder cultivating the King’s own land becoming a samaõa to whom the King himself would show respect and make offerings of requisites, providing him protection and security at the same time.
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The Buddha provided further elucidation on other advantages, higher and better, of being a samaõa by elaborating on (i) how a householder, hearing the dhamma taught by a Buddha, leaves the home life and becomes a samaõa out of pure faith; (ii) how he becomes established in three categories of Sãla, minor, middle and major; (iii) how he gains control over his sense-faculties so that no depraved states of mind as covetousness and dissatisfaction would overpower him; (iv) how he becomes endowed with mindfulness and clear comprehension and remains contented; (v) how, by dissociating himself from ve hindrances, he achieves the four jhànas — the rst, the second, the third and the fourth — as higher advantages than those previously mentioned; (vi) how he becomes equipped with eight kinds of higher knowledge, namely, Insight Knowledge, the Power of Creation by Mind, the Psychic Powers, the Divine Power of Hearing, Knowledge of the Minds of others, Knowledge of Past Existences, Divine Power of Sight, Knowledge of Extinction of moral intoxicants.
Thus when the knowledge of liberation arises in him, he knows he has lived the life of purity. There is no other advantage of being a samaõa, personally experienced, more pleasing and higher than this.
(3) Ambaññha Sutta
Ambaññha, a young disciple of Pokkharasàti, the learned brahmin, was sent by his master to investigate whether Gotama was a genuine Buddha endowed with thirty-two personal characteristics of a great man. His insolent behaviour, taking pride in his birth as a brahmin, led the Buddha to subdue him by proving that Khattiya is in fact superior to Bràhmaõa. The Buddha explained further that nobleness in man stemmed not from birth but from perfection in three categories of morality, achievements of four jhànas, and accomplishments in eight kinds of higher knowledge.
(4) Soõadanda Sutta
This discourse was given to the brahmin Soõadanda who approached the Buddha while he was residing near Lake Gaggarà at Campà in the country of Aïga. He was asked by the Buddha what attributes one should possess to be acknowledged as a brahmin.
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Soõadanda enumerated high birth, learning in the Vedas, good personality, morality and knowledge as essential qualities to be a brahmin. When further questioned by the Buddha, he said that the minimum
quali cations were morality and knowledge without which no one
would be entitled to be called a brahmin. On his request, the Buddha
explained to him the meaning of the terms morality and knowledge, which he confessed to be ignorant of, namely, the three categories of
morality, achievements of four jhànas and accomplishments in eight
kinds of higher knowledge.
(5) Kåñadanta Sutta
On the eve of offering a great sacri cial feast, the brahmin
Kåñadanta went to see the Buddha for advice on how best to conduct
the sacri ce. Giving the example of a former King Mahàvijita, who
also made a great sacri cial offering, the Buddha declared the princi-
ple of consent by four parties from the provinces, namely, noblemen,
ministers, rich brahmins and householders; the eight qualities to be
possessed by the king who would make the offerings; the four quali-
ties of the brahmin royal adviser who would conduct the ceremonies
and the three attitudes of mind towards the sacri ces. With all these
conditions ful lled, the feast offered by the king was a great success,
with no loss of life of sacri cial animals, no hardship on the people, no
one impressed into service, every one co-operating in the great feast
willingly.
The brahmin Kåñadanta then asked the Buddha if there was any sacri ce which could be made with less trouble and exertion, yet producing more fruitful result. The Buddha told him of the traditional practice of offering the four requisites to bhikkhus of high morality. Less troublesome and more pro table again was donating a monastery to the Order of Bhikkhus. Better still were the following practices in ascending order of bene cial effects: (i) going to the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Saügha for refuge; (ii) observance of the Five Precepts; (iii) going forth from the home life and leading the holy life, becoming established in morality, accomplished in the four jhànas, and equipped with eight kinds of higher knowledge resulting in the realization of extinction of àsavas, the sacri ce which entails less trouble and exertion but which excels all other sacri ces.
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(6) Mahàli Sutta
Mahàli Oññhaddha, a Licchavã ruler, once came to see the Buddha to whom he recounted what Sunakkhatta, a Licchavã prince, had told him. Sunakkhatta had been a disciple of the Buddha for three years after which he left the Teaching. He told Mahàli how he had acquired the Divine Power of Sight by which he had seen myriads of pleasant, desirable forms belonging to the deva world but that he had not heard sounds belonging to the deva world. Mahàli wanted to know from the Buddha whether Sunakkhatta did not hear the sounds of the deva world because they were non-existent, or whether he did not hear them although they existed.
The Buddha explained that there were sounds in the deva world but Sunakkhatta did not hear them because he had developed concentration only for one purpose, to achieve the Divine Power of Sight but not the Divine Power of Hearing.
The Buddha explained further that his disciples practiced the noble life under him not to acquire such divine powers but with a view to the realization of dhammas which far excel and transcend these mundane kinds of concentrations. Such dhammas are attainments of the Four States of Noble Fruition — states of a stream-winner, a oncereturner, a non-returner, and the state of mind and knowledge of an Arahat freed of all àsavas that have been rendered extinct.
The Path by which these dhammas can be realized is the Noble Path of Eight Constituents: Right View, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Concentration.
(7) Jàliya Sutta
Once when the Buddha was residing at Ghositàràma Monastery near Kosambã, two wandering ascetics Muõóiya and Jàliya approached him and asked whether the soul was the physical body, or the physical body the soul, or whether the soul was one thing and the physical body another.
The Buddha explained how a person who had nally realized liberation would not even consider whether the soul was the physical
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body, or the physical body the soul or whether the soul was one thing and the physical body another.
(8) Màhasãhanàda Sutta
This discourse de nes what a true samaõa is, what a true bràmnaõa is. The Buddha was residing in the Deer Park of Kaõõakathala at Uruññà. Then the naked ascetic Kassapa approached him and said that he had heard that Samaõa Gotama disparaged all practices of self-morti cation and that Samaõa Gotama reviled all those who led an austere life.
The Buddha replied that they were slandering him with what was not said, what was not true. When the Buddha could see with his supernormal vision the bad destinies as well as the good destinies of those who practiced extreme forms of self-morti cation, and of those who practiced less extreme forms of self-morti cation, how could he revile all systems of self-morti cation?
Kassapa then maintained that only those recluses who for the whole of their life cultivated the practice of standing or sitting, who were abstemious in food, eating only once in two days, seven days,
fteen days etc., were real samaõas and bràhmaõas. The Buddha
explained to him the futility of extreme self-morti cation and said
that only when a recluse practiced to become accomplished in moral-
ity, concentration and knowledge; cultivated loving-kindness, and
dwelt in the emancipation of mind, and emancipation through knowl-
edge that he would be entitled to be called a samaõa and bràhmaõa.
Then the Buddha gave full exposition on morality, concentration and
knowledge, resulting in Kassapa’s decision to join the Order of the
Buddha.
(9) Poññhapàda Sutta
Once when the Buddha was staying at the Monastery of Anàthàpiõóika in the Jeta Grove at Sàvatthi he visited the Ekasàlaka Hall where various views were debated. At that time Poññhapàda the wandering ascetic asked him about the nature of the cessation of Con-
28
sciousness (saññà). Poññhapàda wanted to know how the cessation of
Consciousness was brought about. The Buddha told him that it was
through reason and cause that forms of Consciousness in a being
arose and ceased. A certain form of Consciousness arose through practice (Adhicitta sikkhà) and a certain form of Consciousness ceased
through practice.
The Buddha then proceeded to expound on these practices consisting of observance of sãla and development of concentration which resulted in arising and ceasing of successive jhànas. The meditator progressed from one stage to the next in sequence until he achieved the Cessation of all forms of Consciousness (nirodha samàpatti).
(10) Subha Sutta
This is a discourse given not by the Buddha but by his close attendant, the Venerable ânanda, on the request of young Subha. The Buddha had passed away by then. And young Subha wanted to know from the lips of the Buddha’s close attendant what dhammas were praised by the Buddha and what those dhammas were which he urged people to practise.
ânanda told him that the Buddha had words of praise for the three aggregates of dhamma, namely, the aggregate of morality, the aggregate of concentration and the aggregate of knowledge. The Buddha urged people to practice these dhammas, dwell in them, and have them rmly established. ânanda explained these aggregates of dhamma in great detail to young Subha, in consequence of which he became a devoted lay disciple.
(11) Kevañña Sutta
The Buddha was residing at Nàëandà in Pàvàrika’s mango grove. A devoted lay disciple approached the Buddha and urged him to let one of his disciples perform miracles so that the City of Nàëandà would become ever so much devoted to the Buddha.
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The Buddha told him about the three kinds of miracles which he had known and realized by himself through supernormal knowledge. The rst miracle, iddhi pàñihàriya, was rejected by the Buddha because it could be mistaken as the black art called Gandhàrã magic. The Buddha also rejected the second miracle, àdesanà pàñihàriya which might be mistaken as practice of Cintàmani charm. He recommended the performance of the third miracle, the anusànsanã pàñihàriya, the miracle of the power of the Teaching as it involved practice in Morality, Concentration and Knowledge leading nally to the Extinction of âsavas, âsavakkhaya ¥àõa.
(12) Lohicca Sutta
The discourse lays down three types of blameworthy teachers:
(i) The teacher who is not yet accomplished in the noble practice and
teaches pupils who do not listen to him. (ii) The teacher who is not
yet accomplished in the noble practice and teaches pupils who practice
as instructed by him and attain emancipation. (iii) The teacher who
is fully accomplished in the noble practice and teaches pupils who do
not listen to him.
The praiseworthy teacher is one who has become fully accomplished in the three practices of Morality, Concentration and Knowledge and teaches pupils who become fully accomplished like him.
(13) Tevijja Sutta
Two brahmin youths Vàseññha and Bhàradvàja came to see the Buddha while he was on a tour through the Kingdom of Kosala. They wanted the Buddha to settle their dispute as to the correct path that led straight to companionship with the Brahmà. Each one thought only the way shown by his own master was the true one.
The Buddha told them that as none of their masters had seen the Brahmà, they were like a line of blind men each holding on to the preceding one. Then he showed them the true path that really led
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to the Brahma realm, namely, the path of morality and concentration, and development of loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity towards all sentient beings.
(b) Mahà Vagga Pàëi
The Large Division
The ten suttas in this division are some of the most important
ones of the Tipiñaka, dealing with historical, and biographical aspects
as well as the doctrinal aspects of Buddhism. The most famous sutta
is the Mahàparinibbàna Sutta which gives an account of the last days
and the passing away of the Buddha and the distribution of his relics.
Mahàpadàna Sutta deals with brief accounts of the last seven Buddhas
and the life story of the Vipassã Buddha. Doctrinally important are
the two suttas: the Mahànidàna Sutta which explains the Chain of
Cause and Effect, and the Mahàsatipaññhàna Sutta dealing with the
four Methods of Steadfast Mindfulness and practical aspects of Bud-
dhist meditation.
(1) Mahàpadàna Sutta
This discourse was given at Sàvatthi to the bhikkhus who were
one day discussing the Buddha’s knowledge of past existences. He
told them about the last seven Buddhas, with a full life story of one
of them, the Vipassã Buddha, recalling all the facts of the Buddhas, their social rank, name, clan, life-span, the pairs of Chief Disciples, the assemblies of their followers, their attainments, and emancipation
from de lements.
The Buddha explained that his ability to remember and recall all the facts of past existences was due to his own penetrating discern-
ment as well as due to the devas making these matters known to him.
(2) Mahànidàna Sutta
This discourse was given at Kammàsadhamma market town to the Venerable ânanda to correct his wrong view that the doctrine of Pañiccasamuppàda, although having signs of being deep and profound,
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was apparent and fathomable. The Buddha told him that this doctrine not only appeared to be deep and profound but was actually deep and profound on four counts: it was deep in meaning, deep as a doctrine, deep with respect to the manner in which it was taught, and deep with regard to the facts on which it was established.
He then gave a thorough exposition on the doctrine and said
that because of lack of proper understanding and penetrative compre-
hension of this doctrine, beings were caught in and unable to escape
from, the miserable, ruinous round of rebirth. He concluded that with-
out a clear understanding of this doctrine, even the mind of those,
accomplished in the attainments of jhàna, would be beclouded with
ideas of atta.
(3) Mahàparinibbàna Sutta
This sutta is an important narrative of the Buddha’s last days, a detailed chronicle of what he did, what he said and what happened to him during the last year of his life. Compiled in a narrative form, it is interspersed with many discourses on some of the most fundamental and important aspects of the Buddha’s Teaching. Being the longest discourse of the Dãgha Nikàya, it is divided into six chapters.
On the eve of the last great tour, the Buddha while staying
at Ràjagaha gave the famous discourses on seven factors of Nondecline of kings and princes and seven factors of Non-decline of the
bhikkhus.
Then he set out on his last journey going rst to the village of Pàñali where he taught on the consequences of an immoral and a moral life. He then proceeded to the village of Koñi where he expounded on the Four Noble Truths. Then the Buddha took up his residence at the village of Nàtika where the famous discourse on the Mirror of Truth was given.
Next the Buddha went to Vesàlã with a large company of bhikkhus. At Vesàlã he accepted the park offered by the Courtesan Ambapàëã. From Vesàlã, the Buddha travelled to a small village named Veëuva where he was overtaken by a severe illness that could have proved fatal. But the Buddha resolved to maintain the life-process
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and not to pass away without addressing his lay disciples and without taking leave of the Saügha. When ânanda informed the Buddha how worried he had been because of the Buddha’s illness, the Buddha gave the famous injunction: “Let yourselves be your own support, your own refuge. Let the Dhamma, not anything else, be your refuge.”
It was at Vesàlã that the Buddha made the decision to pass away and realize parinibbàna in three months’ time. Upon his making this momentous decision, there was great earthquake. ânanda, on learning from the Buddha the reason of the earthquake, supplicated him to change the decision, but to no avail.
The Buddha then caused the Saügha to be assembled to whom
he announced his approaching parinibbàna. He then went over all the
fundamental principles of his Teaching and exhorted them to be vigi-
lant, alert, and to watch over one’s own mind so as to make an end of
suffering.
The Buddha then left Vesàlã and went to Bhanóa Village where he continued to give his discourses to the accompanying Saügha on sãla, samàdhi and paññà. Proceeding further on his journey to the north, he gave the discourse on the four great Authorities, Mahàpadesa, at the town of Bhoga.
From there he went on to Pàvà and stayed in the Mango Grove of Cunda, the Goldsmith’s son, who made an offering of food to the Buddha and his community of bhikkhus. After eating the meal offered by Cunda, a severe illness came upon the Buddha who nevertheless continued on his journey till he reached Kusinàrà where in the Sal Grove of the Malla princes he urged ânanda to lay out the couch for him. He lay down on the couch with mindfulness and deliberation, awaiting the hour of his parinibbàna.
Even on his death-bed the Buddha continued to teach, explain-
ing that there are four places which arouse reverence and devotion,
four persons worthy of a stupa, and answering ânanda’s questions on
how to conduct oneself with regard to women, or on what should be
done regarding the remains of the Buddha. His last act of sel essness
was to expound the Truth and show the Path to Subhadda, the wander-
ing ascetic.
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Then after ascertaining that there was not a single bhikkhu who had perplexity or doubt about the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saügha, the Buddha uttered his last words: “Inherent in all compounded things is decay and dissolution. Strive well with full mindfulness.”
Then as the assembled bhikkhus, princes and people paid homage to him with deep reverence, the Buddha passed away, realizing parinibbàna.
(4) Mahàsudassana Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha while he was lying on his death-bed in the Sal Grove of the Mallas. When ânanda implored him not to realize parinibbàna in an insigni cant, barren, small town, the Buddha told him that Kusinàrà was not an insigni cant, small place. In times long past, it was known as Kusàvatã, the capital city of Universal Monarchs who ruled over the four quarters of the world.
The Buddha then described the magni cence and grandeur of Kusàvatã when King Mahàsudassana was the ruler there. He also told how the King ruled over his dominions righteously and how nally abandoning all attachments and practicing jhàna he passed away and reached the blissful Brahma realm.
The Buddha revealed that he himself was King Mahàsudassana
of that time. He had cast off the body in this place (former Kusàvati)
for six times as a Universal Monarch. Now he was casting it off for the
seventh and last time. He ended the discourse reminding ânanda that
all compounded things are indeed impermanent. Arising and decay-
ing are their inherent nature. Only their ultimate cessation is blissful
Nibbàna.
(5) Janavasabha Sutta
This discourse is an extension of another discourse delivered by the Buddha on his last Journey. ânanda wanted to know the desti-
nies of lay disciples from the country of Magadha. The Buddha told him that innumerable persons from Magadha had reached the deva world by virtue of their faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the
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Saügha. This information was given him by Janavasabha Deva who was formerly King Bimbisàra. He informed the Buddha that there were regular assemblies of devas in the deva realm on uposatha days when the king of the devas and Sanaïkumàra Brahmà taught the Dhamma on development of the Bases of Psychic Power, on the Three Opportunities, on the Four Methods of Steadfast Mindfulness and the Seven Accessories of Concentration.
(6) Mahàgovinda Sutta
In this discourse, Pañcasikha, a gandhabba deva, told the deva assembly where Sanaïkumàra Brahmà taught the Dhamma as shown by Mahàgovinda, the Bodhisatta who had reached the Brahmà world. The Buddha said that Mahàgovinda was none other than himself and explained that the Dhamma he taught at that time could lead one only to the Brahmà World. With his Teaching now as Enlightened Buddha, higher attainments such as the Sotàpatti, Sakadàgàmi, Anàgàmi and the highest achievement Arahatta phala were possible.
(7) Mahàsamaya Sutta
The Buddha was residing in the Mahàvana forest at Kapilavatthu with a company of Arahats numbering ve hundred. Then devas and Brahmàs from ten thousand Cakkavaëas came to see the Buddha and the community of bhikkhus. The Buddha told his disciples the names of the devas and Brahmàs as listed in this sutta.
(8) Sakkapañha Sutta
Once when the Buddha was residing at the Indasàla Cave near
Ràjagaha, Sakka, the king of devas, came to him to ask certain questions. He wanted to know why there was hostility and violence among
various beings. The Buddha told him it was envy and sel shness
that brought about hostility among beings. He further explained that
envy and sel shness were caused by likes and dislikes, which in turn
had their roots in desire. And desire grew from mental preoccupation (vitakka) which had its origin in saüsàra-expanding illusions
(papañca-saññà-saïkha).
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The Buddha then gave an outline of practices to remove these saüsàra-expanding illusions including two types of quests, quests that should be pursued and quests that should not be pursued.
(9) Mahàsatipaññhàna Sutta
This sutta is one of the most important doctrinal discourses of
the Buddha. It propounds the only way ‘for the puri cation of beings, for overcoming sorrow and lamentation, for the complete removal of
pain and grief, for the attainment of the right path, and for the realization of Nibbàna.’ This discourse, given directly to the bhikkhus at the
market town of Kammàsadhamma, de nes ‘the only way’ as the Four
Methods of Steadfast Mindfulness made up of fourteen ways of contemplating the body, nine ways of contemplating sensation, sixteen
ways of contemplating the mind, and ve ways of contemplating the
dhamma. It ends with a de nite assurance of fruitful results: Arahatship in this very existence or the state of an anàgàmã within seven
years, seven months or seven days.
(10) Pàyàsi Sutta
This discourse recounts how the Venerable Kumàrakassapa showed the right path to Governor Pàyàsi of Setabyà town in Kosala country. Governor Pàyàsi held the wrong belief: “There is no other world; no beings arise again after death; there are no consequences of good or bad deeds.” The Venerable Kumàrakassapa showed him the right path, illustrating his teaching with numerous illuminating similes. Ultimately Pàyàsi became full of faith and took refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saügha. The Venerable Kumàrakassapa taught him also the right kind of offerings to be made and that these offerings should be made with due respect, by one’s own hands, with due esteem and not as if discarding them. Only under these conditions would the good deed of offerings bear splendid fruits.
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(c) Pàthika Vagga Pàëi
This division is made up of eleven shorter discourses of a miscellaneous nature. They deal with the Buddha’s rejection of wrong and severe asceticism practised by followers of many sects; they deal also with the periodical evolution and dissolution of the universe, the accounts of Universal Monarchs and the thirty-two physiognomic
characteristics of a great man. There is one discourse, Siïgàla Sutta, addressed to a young brahmin showing the duties to be performed by members of the human society. The last two suttas, Saïgãti and Dasuttara, are discourses given by the Venerable Sàriputta and they contain lists of doctrinal terms classi ed according to subject matter and numerical units. The style of their composition is different from the other nine suttas of the division.
(1) Pàthika Sutta
At the time of the Buddha, there were many other teachers with their own disciples, holding different views on what constituted the holy life, on the origin and development of the universe, and on the performance of wonders and miracles. Sunakkhatta, a Licchvã prince, became a disciple of the Buddha and was admitted into the Order.
But he found the discipline and the Teaching to be beyond him and his comprehension; he became at the same time attracted to the teachings and practices of other sects. He left the Order after three years. Then becoming a follower of one of the sects he began to disparage the teachings of the Buddha, and made slanderous attacks on the Buddha and his disciples. In Pàthika Sutta are short discourses in which are accounts of the Buddha’s refutation and explanation with reference to many of Sunakkhatta’s accusations.
(2) Udumbarika Sutta
This discourse was given to Nigrodha the wandering ascetic and his followers in the Park of the Queen Udumbarikà near Ràjagaha, in order to destroy their wrong doctrine and establish wholesome doctrine. So obsessed were the wandering ascetics with their own wrong beliefs that they gave no response to the Buddha’s invitation to follow his Teaching assuring them fruitful results within seven days.
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(3) Cakkavatti Sutta
In the town of Màtulà, in the country of Magadha, bhikkhus were enjoined by the Buddha to be their own support, their own refuge; relying only on the Dhamma and not on any other refuge. Then the Buddha told them the story of Dalhanemi, the Universal Monarch, who possessed the Celestial Wheel as one of his seven treasures. He and his successor ruled over the four continents, wielding the power and authority of the Universal Monarch. Their life-span was long and as long as they remained righteous and ful lled the noble duties of Universal Monarch, making the Dhamma their only support, providing shelter and security, offering wealth and necessities to the needy, their dominions remained at peace, prosperous and progressing.
But when the Monarch failed to ful ll the noble duties of a
righteous king, when the Dhamma was no longer held as a refuge,
morality of the people declines. The life-span dwindled down to
ten years only. Then ten meritorious deeds productive of wholesome
effects completely disappeared and ten evil deeds giving unwhole-
some results ourished exceedingly. People failed to show reverential
regard for the leaders and elders, to ful l their duties towards parents,
samaõas and bràhmaõas. There also developed intense mutual aver-
sion, ill will, thoughts of killing one another, followed by ghting, dev-
astation and carnage.
A few who survived the holocaust agreed to give up their evil
ways, to live in a spirit of harmony, doing good deeds, showing rever-
ential regard for the leaders and elders, ful lling their duties towards
parents, samaõas and bràhmaõas. In consequence of improved moral-
ity, their life-span expanded again until it reached eighty thousand
years when a Universal Monarch appeared once more to rule right-
eously. Bhikkhus were thus enjoined to keep within the con nes of the
Dhamma, making it their support, their refuge. The Dhamma would
show the way for their physical and mental development until they
attained Arahatship.
(4) Aggañña Sutta
This discourse was given at Sàvatthi to two novices under train-
ing, Vàseññha and Bhàradvàja, pointing out the wrong beliefs of brah-
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mins as regards caste. The brahmins claimed that among the four classes of people, recognised at that time, brahmins were the noblest; next came the Khattiya class, the nobility and royalty; followed by Vessa, the trading class and Sudda, the lowest class.
The Buddha refuted these claims of the brahmins, by explaining how the world was subjected to processes of evolution and dissolution and describing how human beings rst appeared on earth and how the four social classes emerged. He explained further that the nobility of a person was decided not by his birth and lineage but by his morality and knowledge of the Noble Truths.
“Whoever holds wrong views and commits misdeeds is not noble whatever his birth. Whoever restrains himself in deed, word and thought and develops the Bodhipakkhiya Dhammas until he attains complete eradication of de lements in this very life is the chief, the noblest amongst men and devas irrespective of birth.”
(5) Sampasàdanãya Sutta
The Venerable Sàriputta’s deep con dence in the Buddha was once proclaimed aloud in an eloquent eulogy of the Buddha spoken in the Buddha’s presence. For making this bold utterance on the virtues of the Buddha, the Buddha asked him whether he had personal knowledge of the minds of all the Buddhas, those of the past, of the future and of the present, their Morality, their Concentration, their Wisdom, and the manner of their emancipation.
The Venerable Sàriputta said he did not claim to have such
knowledge but justi ed himself by stating in detail the course of the
Dhamma taken by all the Buddhas — their accomplishment in sãla,
abandonment of ve hindrances, establishment in the four Methods of
Steadfast Mindfulness and cultivation of the Seven Factors of Enlight-
enment — the only course that could lead to unsurpassed Supreme
Enlightenment.
(6) Pàsàdika Sutta
The Venerable ânanda accompanied by bhikkhu Cunda went to see the Buddha to give him the news about the death of Nigaõñha Nàñaputta, the leader of a well-known sect, and the schism that had arisen amongst his disciples.
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The Buddha told them that it was natural and to be expected to happen in a Teaching which was not well taught, not well imparted, not conducive to emancipation, and not taught by one who was supremely enlightened.
In contrast, the Buddha explained that when the Teaching was well taught, well imparted by one who was supremely enlightened, there were no wrong views, no speculations about past or future or about atta. In the Teaching of the Buddha, bhikkhus were taught the Four Methods of Steadfast Mindfulness by which wrong views and speculations were laid aside.
(7) Lakkhaõa Sutta
This discourse on thirty-two bodily marks of a great man was given by the Buddha at Sàvatthi, in the Anàthapiõóika’s Monastery. For a person endowed with the thirty-two bodily marks of a great man, only two possible courses are open to him and no other.
“If he lives the household life, he will become a Universal Mon-
arch ruling in righteousness over the four continents. If he goes forth
from the home life into homelessness, he will become an Enlightened
Buddha.”
The Buddha explained the thirty-two bodily marks in detail, together with accounts of meritorious deeds previously performed by virtue of which each of these thirty-two bodily marks were acquired.
(8) Siïgàla Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha at Ràjagaha for the
edi cation of a young man named Siïgàla. The youth Siïgàla used to
worship the six cardinal points, namely, the East, the South, the West,
the North, the Nadir and the Zenith in obedience to the last advice
given by his dying father. The Buddha explained to the young man
that according to his Teaching, the six directions were: The East stand-
ing for parents; The South standing for teachers; The West standing
for the wife and children; The North standing for friends and associ-
ates; The Nadir standing for servants, employees; The Zenith standing
for samaõas, bràhmaõas.
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The Buddha explained further that the six social groups men-
tioned in the discourse were to be regarded as sacred and worthy
of respect and worship. One worshipped them by performing one’s
duties towards them. Then these duties were explained to the youth
Siïgàla.
(9) âñànàñiya Sutta
Four Celestial Kings came to see the Buddha and told him
that there were non-believers among many invisible beings who might
bring harm to the followers of the Buddha. The Celestial Kings there-
fore wanted to teach the bhikkhus the protecting incantation known
as the âñànàñiya Paritta. The Buddha gave his consent by remaining
silent.
Then the four Celestial Kings recited the âñànàñiya Paritta, which the Buddha advised bhikkhus, bhikkhunãs and lay disciples to
learn, to memorize so that they might dwell at ease, well guarded and
protected.
(10) Saïgãti Sutta
The Buddha was touring through the country of the Mallas when he came to Pàvà. The death of Nigaõñha Nàñaputta had taken place only recently and his followers were left in dissension and strife, wrangling over doctrines.
The Venerable Sàriputta who delivered this discourse attributed this schism among Nàñaputta’s followers to the fact that Nàñaputta’s Teaching had not been well taught nor well imparted, and was not conducive to release from the round of existences, being taught by one who was not supremely enlightened.
But the Buddha’s Teaching was well taught, well imparted, conducive to release from the round of existences, being taught by the Buddha who was supremely enlightened. He advised the bhikkhus to recite the Dhamma as taught by the Buddha, in concord and without dissension so that the teaching should last long. Then he proceeded to enumerate the Dhamma classi ed under separate heads as Group of the Ones, Group of the Twos, etc, up to the Group of the Tens to facilitate easy memorizing and reciting.
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(11) Dasuttara Sutta
This discourse was also delivered by the Venerable Sàriputta, while the Buddha was staying at Campà, in order that the bhikkhus should get liberated from fetters, and attain Nibbàna, bringing about the end of suffering.
He taught the Dhamma classi ed under separate heads as Group of the ones, Group of the Twos, etc., up to the Group of the Tens.
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Chapter V
Majjhima Nikàya
Collection of Medium Length Discourses of the Buddha.
This collection of medium length discourses is made up of one hundred and fty-two suttas in three books known as paõõàsa. The rst book, Målapaõõàsa, deals with the rst fty suttas in ve vaggas; the second book, Majjhimapaõõàsa consists of the second fty suttas in ve vaggas too; and the last fty-two suttas are dealt with in
ve vaggas of the third book, Uparipaõõàsa, which means more than
fty.
The suttas in this Nikàya throw much light on the social ideas and institutions of those days, and also provide general information on the economic and political life.
(a) Målapaõõàsa Pàëi
I. Målapariyàya Vagga
(1) Målapariyàya Sutta
The Buddha explained the basis of all phenomena, specifying
twenty-four categories such as the four elements (earth, water, re,
wind); sentient beings, devas; the seen, the heard, the thought of, the
known; the oneness, the multiplicity, the whole; and the reality of
Nibbàna. The uninstructed worldling cannot perceive the true nature
of these phenomena; only the enlightened ones can see them in true
perspective.
(2) Sabbàsava Sutta
In this discourse, mental intoxicants that beset the uninstructed worldling are de ned, and seven practices for eradicating them are explained.
(3) Dhammadàyàda Sutta
This sutta contains two separate discourses, the rst one given by the Buddha, the second by the Venerable Sàriputta. The Buddha
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urged the bhikkhus to receive as their legacy from him the Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma only, and not material things like the four requisites. The Venerable Sàriputta advised the bhikkhus to lead a solitary life for attainment of jhàna and to strive for the attainment of Nibbàna by abandoning greed, ill will, and delusion.
(4) Bhayabherava Sutta
This discourse describes how a bhikkhu leading a solitary life in a secluded forest invites harm and danger to himself by his impure thoughts, words and deeds, and how the Buddha had lived a peaceful forest life harmlessly by cultivating pure thoughts, words and deeds which nally led him to enlightenment.
(5) Anaïgaõa Sutta
In this discourse given on the request of the Venerable Mahà Moggallàna, the Venerable Sàriputta explained four types of individuals:
(i) an impure person who knows he is impure;
(ii) an impure person who does not know he is impure; (iii) a pure person who knows his own purity;
(iv) a pure person who does not know his own purity.
(6) âkaïkheyya Sutta
This sutta describes how a bhikkhu should develop sãla, samàdhi and paññà, instead of hankering after gain and fame; how he should restrain his faculties, seeing danger in the slightest fault.
(7) Vattha Sutta
In this discourse the Buddha explained the difference between an impure mind and a pure mind by giving the example of dirty cloth and clean cloth. Only the clean cloth will absorb dye; so also only the pure mind will retain the dhamma.
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(8) Sallekha Sutta
In this discourse the Buddha explained to Mahà Cunda how wrong views about atta and loka can be removed only by vipassanà insight. Jhànic practice is not the austerity practice that removes moral de lements; jhànic practice only leads to a blissful existence.
Only refraining from forty-four kinds of bad deeds constitutes austerity practice for removing moral de lements. The volition alone to do a good deed is enough to produce a good result; when it is accompanied by the actual deed, the bene cial result accruing is immeasurable. One immersed in the mire of sensuous impurities cannot rescue others immersed likewise in the mire.
(9) Sammàdiññhi Sutta
This discourse is an exposition on the right view delivered by the Venerable Sàriputta at Sàvatthi. When physical, verbal and mental actions are motivated by greed, hatred and delusion, they are deemed to be bad. When they arise through non-greed, non-hatred and nondelusion, the actions are deemed to be good. Right View is understanding what a good deed is and what a bad deed is; it is the full comprehension of the Four Noble Truths and not holding on to eternity views concerning atta.
(10) Mahàsatipaññhàna Sutta
This discourse given at Kammàsadhamma market town is the most important sutta which gives practical guidance for cultivation of mindfulness. It describes the Four Methods of Steadfast Mindfulness, namely, contemplating the body, contemplating sensation, contemplat-
ing the mind, and contemplating the dhamma as the one and only way for the puri cation of beings, for the overcoming of sorrow and lamentation, for the complete destruction of pain and distress, for the attainment of the Noble Magga, and for the realization of Nibbàna,
This sutta appears in identical form in the Dãgha Nikàya.
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II. Sãhanàda Vagga
(1) Cåëasãhanàda Sutta
In this discourse, given at Sàvatthi, the Buddha made the bold statement that the four Categories of Ariyas, namely, the Stream-winner, the Once-returner, the Non-returner and the Arahat exist only in his Teaching and not in any other.
(2) Màhasãhanàda Sutta
In this discourse, given at Vesàlã, the Venerable Sàriputta
reported to the Buddha about the disparagement of the Buddha’s vir-
tues made by Sunakkhatta who had left the Teaching. The Buddha
said that Sunakkhatta was not intellectually equipped to have the
faintest glimpse of the Buddha’s virtues such as the Ten Strengths, the
four kinds of supreme Self-Con dence, the Non-decline of Sabbaññuta
¥àõa till the time of parinibbàna. He then described the ve destina-
tions and the actions which lead to them as well as the wrong beliefs
and practices of the naked ascetics to whose camp Sunakkhatta now
belonged.
(3) Mahàdukkhakkhandha Sutta
This discourse was given at Sàvatthi to refute the naked ascetics when they tried to make out that they followed the same path and taught the same dhamma as the Buddha. The Buddha also explained to the bhikkhus what the pleasures of the senses were, what their faults and dangers were, and the way of escape from them. The Buddha explained further that outside of his Teaching, these dhammas were not known and no one but the Buddha and his disciples could teach such dhammas.
(4) Cåëadukkhakkhandha Sutta
This discourse, given by the Buddha, at Kapilavatthu to the Sakyan Prince Mahànàma to explain to him on his request, how greed, ill will and ignorance caused moral de lements and suffering.
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(5) Anumàna Sutta
This discourse was given by the Venerable Mahà Moggallàna to many bhikkhus at Susumàragira in the country of Bhagga. They were urged to see if they had purged themselves of sixteen kinds of stubbornness such as inordinate desire, humiliating others while praising oneself, wrathfulness, etc. If these sixteen kinds of unwholesome dhammas were detected in oneself, a determined effort should be made to get rid of them.
(6) Cetokhila Sutta
This discourse, given by the Buddha at Sàvatthi, mentions the ve kinds of mental thorns: doubt about the Buddha, doubt about the Dhamma, doubt about the Saügha, doubt about the ef cacy of the practice in sãla, samàdhi and paññà, ill will and animosity towards fellow bhikkhus. It also mentions the ve fetters: attachment to sen-
sual desires, attachment to oneself, attachment to material objects; immoderation in eating and sleeping, and adopting the holy life with the limited objective of attaining to blissful existences only. These mental thorns and fetters are obstacles to liberation from dukkha. They should be removed and eradicated for realization of Nibbàna.
(7) Vanapattha Sutta
This discourse, given at Sàvatthi, is concerned with the choice
of a suitable place for a bhikkhu. A bhikkhu has to depend on a forest
glade or a village, or a town or an individual for his residence and
support. If he nds out any particular place is not satisfactory for his
spiritual development or for material support, he should abandon that
place at once.
If he nds it satisfactory with respect to material support, but
not bene cial for spiritual development, he should abandon that place,
too. But when it proves bene cial for spiritual development, even if
the material support is meagre, the bhikkhu should stay on in that
place. When conditions are satisfactory both for spiritual development
and material support, he should live for the whole of his life in such
a place.
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(8) Madhupiõóika Sutta
A Sakyan Prince, named Daõóapàni, once asked the Buddha at Kapilavatthu what doctrine he taught. The Buddha replied that his doctrine was one which could not be grasped by any brahmin nor by the Màra. It is this: not living in discord with any one in the world; not obsessed by sense impressions (saññà); not troubled by doubts; and not craving for any form of existence.
(9) Dvedàvitakka Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha at Sàvatthi to explain two kinds of thinking: wholesome and unwholesome. Bhikkhus should practice to see the advantages of engaging in wholesome thoughts and the dangers of unwholesome thoughts.
(10) Vitakkasaõñhàna Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha at Sàvatthi on how to combat the arising of unwholesome thoughts with wholesome thoughts. For example, greed and sensuous thoughts should be banished by contemplating on unpleasantness and impermanency of the object of desire; ill will and hatred must be countered by thoughts of loving-kindness; and ignorance may be overcome by seeking illumination and guidance from the teacher.
III. Opamma Vagga
(1) Kakacåpama Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha at Sàvatthi in connection with Bhikkhu Moëiyaphagguna who was friendly with bhikkhunãs. When others censured him for being too friendly with bhikkhunãs, he lost his temper and broke into quarrel with bhikkhus who criticized him.
When the Buddha admonished and advised him to keep away from bhikkhunãs and to control his temper, he remained recalcitrant.
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The Buddha showed the harmfulness of ill temper and advised other bhikkhus to keep a tight check on their temper, not losing it even when some one was sawing away their limbs into bits.
(2) Alagaddåpama Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha at Sàvatthi. Bhikkhu Ariññha misunderstood the Buddha’s Teaching and maintained that the Buddha showed how to enjoy sensuous pleasure without jeopardising one’s progress in the Path. When the Buddha remonstrated with him for his wrong views he remained unrepentant.
The Buddha then spoke to the bhikkhus on the wrong way and the right way of learning the dhamma, giving the simile of a snake catcher, and the simile of the raft.
(3) Vammika Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha at Sàvatthi. Venerable Kumàrakassapa was asked by a deva a set of fteen questions which he brought to the Buddha for elucidation. The Buddha explained to him the meaning of the questions and assisted him in their solution.
(4) Rathavinãta Sutta
This sutta recounts the dialogue between the Venerable Sàriputta and the Venerable Puõõa at Sàvatthi on the seven stages of purity, such as purity of sãla, purity of mind, purity of view etc., that must be passed before attainment to Nibbàna.
(5) Nivàpa Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha at Sàvatthi on the snares that waylay bhikkhus on their path, making use of the simile of the hunter, the hunter’s followers, the green pasture and four different herds of deer. The hunter was likened to Màra, the hunter’s crowd to Màra’s followers, the green pasture he had set up to the sensuous pleasures, and four different herds of deer to four different types of recluses who left home life.
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(6) Pàsaràsi Sutta
This sutta given by the Buddha at Sàvatthi is also known by the name of Ariyapariyesana Sutta. The Buddha recounted his life from the time he was born in the human world as the son of King Suddhodana till the moment of the great discourse on the Turning of the Wheel of Dhamma, giving details of his renunciation, initial wrong practices of severe asceticism and nal discovery of the Noble Path of Eight Constituents. In particular, stress was laid on two different types of quests, the Noble and the Ignoble. He explained that it was extremely unwise to go after sensual pleasures which subject one to ageing, disease and death. The most noble quest was to seek out that which will liberate one from ageing, disease and death.
(7) Cåëahatthipadopama Sutta
This sutta was given by the Buddha at Sàvatthi. The Brahmin Jàõussoõi asked the wandering ascetic Pilotika, who had just come back from the Buddha, whether he knew all the virtues and accomplishments of the Buddha. The wandering ascetic replied that only a Buddha who could match another Buddha in attainments could know all the virtues of the other. As for him, he could only exercise his imagination in this respect just as a hunter would judge the measurements of an elephant from the size of its footprints.
Later when the Brahmin Jàõussoõi went to see the Buddha, and
recounted his conversation with the wandering ascetic the Buddha
told him that the size of an elephant’s footprint might still be mis-
leading. Only when one followed the footprints, and the animal was
seen grazing in the open, its true measurements could be accurately
judged. So also the virtues of the Buddha and his Teaching could be
fully appreciated and understood only when one followed his Teach-
ing and practised as taught by him until the nal goal of Arahatship
was reached.
(8) Mahàhatthipadopama Sutta
This discourse was given by the Venerable Sàriputta to the bhikkhus at Sàvatthi using the simile of the elephant’s footprint. He
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explained that just as the footprint of all animals could be contained within the footprint of an elephant, all wholesome dhammas were comprised in the Four Noble Truths.
(9) Mahàsàropama Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha at Ràjagaha in con-
nection with Devadatta who remained contented with gain and fame
because of his attainment of supernormal powers and left the Teach-
ing to cause schism in the Order. The Buddha said that this Teaching
was not for the purpose of gain and fame which were like the external
shoots and branches of a tree; nor just for the accomplishment in sãla
which may be likened to the outer crust of a tree; nor for mere estab-
lishing of concentration to achieve supernormal powers which were
like the bark of a tree. The Dhamma was taught for the attainment of
Arahatship, the noble liberation which alone resembled the inner pith
of a tree.
(10) Cåëasàropama Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha at Sàvatthi in connection with the Brahmin Piïgalakoccha who asked the Buddha whether all the six teachers claiming to be Buddhas were really enlightened. The Buddha explained that the Brahmacariya practice taught by a Buddha led to Arahatship, not just to the achievement of gain and fame, or supernormal powers.
IV. Mahàyamaka Vagga
(1) Cåëagosiïga Sutta
The Venerable Anuruddha, the Venerable Nandiya and the Venerable Kimila were staying in the Gosiïga Sal tree woodland. The Buddha visited them and praised them on their way of living, practising the holy life with perfect harmony and concord amongst themselves, thus forming an adornment to the lovely woodland park.
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(2) Mahàgosiïga Sutta
Once while the Buddha was residing in the Gosiïga Sal tree woodland, the Venerable Sàriputta asked the Buddha: ‘Who would most adorn this woodland park and enhance its beauty?’ The discourse records the different answers provided by the Venerables Revata, Anuruddha, Mahà Kassapa, Mahà Moggallàna, Sàriputta and by the Buddha himself.
(3) Mahàgopàlaka Sutta
This discourse, given by the Buddha at Sàvatthi, explains the conditions under which the Teaching would grow and prosper and the conditions under which it would decline and decay. The example of a cowherd is given. When a cowherd is equipped with eleven skills of managing and tending his cattle, there is progress and growth in his work. So also when the bhikkhu is skilled and accomplished in eleven factors such as knowledge of truth about the khandhas, practice of sãla, samàdhi and paññà etc., the Teaching will grow and prosper.
(4) Cåëagopàlaka Sutta
This discourse deals with eleven factors, the failure to ful l which would contribute to the downfall and ruin of the Teaching. Just as the cattle under the care of an unwise and unskilful cowherd crossed the river from a wrong quay on the bank and met with destruction instead of reaching the other shore, so also the followers of the teachers who were not accomplished in the knowledge of truth, khandhas, etc., would end up only in disaster.
(5) Cåëasaccaka Sutta
This discourse, given at Vesàlã, gives an account of the debate between the Buddha and Saccaka the wandering ascetic on the sub-
ject of atta. Saccaka maintained that råpa, vedanà, saññà, saïkhàra and viññàõa were one’s atta. It was atta which enjoyed the fruits of good deeds and suffered the consequences of bad deeds. The Buddha refuted his theory, pointing out that none of the khandhas was atta,
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each being subjected to the laws of anicca, dukkha, and anatta, and not amenable to anyone’s control. Saccaka had to admit his defeat in the presence of his followers.
(6) Mahàsaccaka Sutta
The same Saccaka, the wandering ascetic, came again to the Buddha the next day and asked about the cultivation of mind and body. He knew only the wrong methods of developing concentration. The Buddha explained to Saccaka the various practices he himself had followed and mistakes he had made until he found the middle Path that nally led him to the realization of Nibbàna.
(7) Cåëataõhàsaïkhaya Sutta
On enquiry by the king of devas how a disciple of the Buddha trained himself to realize Nibbàna, the Buddha gave him a short description of how a householder, after leaving his home, put himself on a course of training that gradually puri ed his mind of all moral de lements and led him to the nal goal.
(8) Mahàtaõhàsaïkhaya Sutta
A disciple of the Buddha, Sàti by name, held the view that the Buddha taught: ‘The same consciousness transmigrates and wanders about.’ Other disciples tried to rid him of this wrong view but to no avail. The Buddha told him that he never taught such wrong views. He only taught ‘Consciousness arises out of conditions; there is no arising of Consciousness without conditions.’
(9) Mahà-assapura Sutta
The people of Assapura, a market town of Aïga country, were ardently devoted to the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saügha, help-
ing and assisting the members of the Order by offering them the bhikkhu requisites. Out of gratitude for such support, the Buddha urged the bhikkhus to make strenuous efforts in their training and practice of Dhamma, gradually going up stage by stage: starting from
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avoiding evil deeds by restraint of physical and vocal actions, to proceed to mental restraint through meditation, then progressing towards attainment of four stages of jhàna, and nally to the stage where all moral de lements were eliminated and Nibbàna was attained.
(10) Cåëa-assapura Sutta
Out of gratitude for the support given by the lay devotees of Assapura, a market town in the country of Aïga, the Buddha urged the bhikkhus to be worthy of the name of samaõa and bràhmaõa. Samaõa means one who has stilled his passions; bràhmaõa one who has rid himself of de lements. A bhikkhu should therefore subject himself to the course of discipline and practice as laid down by the Buddha until he had eliminated the twelve de lements such as envy, ill will, deceit, wrong views, etc.
V. Cåëayamaka Vagga
(1) Sàëeyyaka Sutta
This exposition was given to villagers of Sàlà on ten demeritorious deeds that would lead to states of misery and woe and ten meritorious deeds that would give rise to rebirth in happy realms.
(2) Verañjaka Sutta
This discourse was given to the householders of Verañjà dealing with identical subjects as in the Sàleyyaka Sutta.
(3) Mahàvedalla Sutta
The Venerable Mahàkoññhika asked many questions to the Ven-
erable Sàriputta at Sàvatthi regarding an uninstructed person with
no paññà, and instructed persons with paññà; many questions on
viññàõa and vedanà, on the difference between paññà and viññàõa, and
many other things. The Venerable Sàriputta obliged him with detailed
answers.
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(4) Cåëavedalla Sutta
Therã Dhammadinnà was asked many questions by the householder Visàkha about personality, Sakkàya, the origin of Sakkàya, the cessation of Sakkàya and the way leading to cessation of Sakkàya. All the questions were satisfactorily answered by the Therã.
(5) Cåëadhammasamàdàna Sutta
This sutta describes four practices involving: (i) happy living now, followed by dire consequences in the future; (ii) unhappy living now, followed by dire consequences in the future; (iii) unhappy living now, followed by a happy life in the future; (iv) happy living now, followed by a happy life in the future.
(6) Mahàdhammasamàdàna Sutta
In this discourse, the four practices as described in Cåëadhammasamàdàna Sutta are explained with more details giving similes of poisoned fruit juice, delicious cordial and medicinal preparation of cow’s urine.
(7) Vãmaüsaka Sutta
Any claim to Buddhahood may be put to acid tests as provided in this sutta. A detailed procedure to scrutinize such claim is laid down here.
(8) Kosambiya Sutta
This discourse on how loving-kindness should be the basis of
their relations was given by the Buddha to the bhikkhus of Kosambã
who were living in discord because of disagreement over tri ing
matters.
(9) Brahmanimantanika Sutta
The Brahmà Baka held the wrong view of eternity, believing in permanence, stability, and endurance. The Buddha showed him how wrong his belief was.
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(10) Màratajjanãya Sutta
This is an account given by the Venerable Mahà Mogallàna of how Màra once troubled him by causing pains and aches in the stomach. He had to coax him to stop annoying him by telling him that he had been Màra’s uncle at the time of Kakusandha Buddha.
(b) Majjhima Paõõàsa Pàëi
I. Gahapati Vagga
(1) Kandaraka Sutta
This discourse was delivered at Campà in connection with
Kandaraka, the wandering ascetic, and Pessa, son of an elephant rider, who marvelled at the silence maintained by the huge congregation
of bhikkhus, not making any sound, not even a sneeze nor a cough. The Buddha explained that their silence was due to their accomplishments in samàdhi and to their training on four Methods of Steadfast
Mindfulness. The Buddha also elucidated the four types of individuals
engaged in meditation.
(2) Aññhakanàgara Sutta
The householder Dasama of Aññhaka wanted to know if there was a single dhamma which could cause liberation and realization of Nibbàna. The Venerable ânanda informed him there was a group of dhammas, eleven in number, namely, the four jhànas, the four Brahmavihàra practices, and âkàsànañcàyatana, Viññàõañcàyatana, âkiñcaññàyatana. Contemplating the impermanent nature of each of these dhammas would lead one to Nibbàna.
(3) Sekha Sutta
This discourse was given by the Venerable ânanda to the Sakyans headed by Prince Mahànàma. The Venerable ânanda explained the path consisting of three steps, sãla, samàdhi and paññà to be followed by an aspirant to higher knowledge culminating in the knowledge of cessation of àsava.
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(4) Potaliya Sutta
Potaliya had left worldly affairs behind with a view to lead the
holy life. When the Buddha saw him dressed in ordinary everyday
attire, the Buddha addressed him as ‘Gahapati’, householder, which
Potaliya resented. The Buddha explained to him that in the vocabu-
lary of the Vinaya one was said to have cut oneself off from the world
only when one refrained from killing, stealing, telling lies, slandering,
and only when one was abstemious, not conceited, and controlled in
one’s temper.
(5) Jãvaka Sutta
This discourse was given at Ràjagaha in connection with
Jãvaka, the great physician, who enquired whether it was true that the
Buddha ate the meat of animals killed purposely for him. The Buddha
told him that he had made it a rule for the bhikkhus not to partake of
any meat which they saw or heard or had reason to suspect to be espe-
cially prepared for them. Further, a bhikkhu should not show eager-
ness for food nor be greedy in eating; he should eat with re ection
that he took the meal only to sustain the body in order to pursue the
path of liberation.
(6) Upàli Sutta
A prominent, wealthy lay disciple of Nigaõñha Nàñaputta was sent by his master to meet the Buddha and defeat him in argument on certain aspects of the Theory of Kamma. Whereas the Nigaõñha stressed on the physical and vocal actions being more productive of resultant effects, the Buddha maintained that it was volition or mental action that was paramount. By means of his discourse the Buddha converted Upàli, and overwhelmed by intense wrath over the loss of his most prominent disciple, Nàñaputta died.
(7) Kukkuravatika Sutta
This discourse, given by the Buddha to two naked ascetics named Puõõa and Seniya at the market town of Koliya, deals with four kinds of actions and four kinds of resultant effects arising there-
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from: (i) black deed leading to black result, (i) white deed leading to white result, (iii) deed which is both black and white leading to result which is both black and white and (iv) deed which is neither black nor white leading to result which is neither black nor white.
(8) Abhayaràjakumàra Sutta
Prince Abhayaràjakumàra was sent by Nigaõñha Nàñaputta to ask the Buddha whether he uttered unpleasant words about the destiny of Devadatta. The Buddha enumerated six modes of utterances out of which he would make two modes of utterances: words which are true, pro table but not pleasant to others and words which are true, pro table and pleasant to others.
(9) Bahuvedanãya Sutta
This discourse was given at Sàvatthi to explain the various kinds of vedanà which might be two in number: sukha and dukkha vedanàs; or three in number by including the upekkhà vedanà; or
ve, six, eighteen or thirty-six, or one hundred and eight, depending
on the method of enumeration. Ordinarily sensations that arise from
pleasures of the senses are regarded as sukha, or happiness. But the
Buddha explains that the acme of happiness is attainment of nirodha
samàpatti.
(10) Apaõõaka Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha to the villagers of Sàlà in the country of Kosala who had not yet accepted any of the teachings taught by leaders of the various sects visiting their village. The Buddha showed them the right path which would not lead them astray. The wrong views of the sectarians were contrasted against the right views propounded by the Buddha; the disadvantages of wrong views, and the advantages of right views were explained.
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II. Bhikkhu Vagga
(1) Ambalaññhikaràhulovàda Sutta
In this discourse, given at Ràjagaha, the Buddha exhorted his son Ràhula, a sàmaõera aged seven, on the necessity of observing the fundamental moral precept of truthfulness, and of practising mindfulness, by giving the similes of the upturned water pot, the royal elephant and the mirror.
(2) Mahàràhulovàda Sutta
This discourse on the ve khandhas was given at Sàvatthi by the Buddha to Ràhula at the age of eighteen. The Venerable Sàriputta also taught Ràhula the meditation on ânàpàna. The Buddha further explained to him the advantages of ânàpàna meditation and gave him another discourse on the four great elements.
(3) Cåëamàlukya Sutta
This discourse was given at Sàvatthi to the bhikkhu Màlukya. Bhikkhu Màlukya interrupted his meditation one afternoon, went to the Buddha and asked him the wellknown classical questions: Is the universe eternal or not etc.; is the soul the same as the body, is soul one thing and body another, etc.; does life exist after death, or does it not exist after death.
The Buddha explained to him that the practice of the holy life did not depend upon these views. Whatever view one may hold about them, there would still be birth, ageing, decay, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, distress. The Buddha said that he taught only about dukkha, the cause of dukkha, the cessation of dukkha and the way leading to the cessation of dukkha.
(4) Mahàmàlukya Sutta
This discourse was given to bhikkhu Màlukya at Sàvatthi to explain the ve fetters, namely, personality belief, doubt, attachment
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to wrong practice, sensual desires and ill will, which lead beings to lower destinations.
(5) Bhaddàli Sutta
This discourse, given at Sàvatthi, is an exhortation to bhikkhu Bhaddàli who refused to obey the disciplinary rule of not eating after midday and in the evening; the Buddha explained why bhikkhus in the Teaching should respect the disciplinary rules laid down by him.
(6) Lañukikopama Sutta
This discourse was given to the Venerable Udàyi in connection
with observance of disciplinary rules and precepts. When the ve
strengths (balas), namely, faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration
and insight are not well developed, the bhikkhu nds even a paltry
restraint like refraining from eating meals in the afternoon and in the
evening very irksome and onerous. But when the ve Balas are fully
developed, even stringent rules can be observed without any dif culty
or discomfort.
(7) Càtuma Sutta
This discourse was given at Càtuma to the disciples of the Venerable Sàriputta and the Venerable Mahà Moggallàna, who came with ve hundred bhikkhus to see the Buddha. The ve hundred bhikkhus made a lot of noise while settling down. The Buddha refused to see them at rst, but later relented and taught them the dangers in the life of a bhikkhu. Just as there are dangers and hazards in a sea like stormy waves, crocodiles, whirlpools, and sharks, so also there are dangers against which the bhikkhu must be always on guard, namely, ill will against those who instruct them and guide them; dissatisfaction with training rules such as those concerning taking of meals or dealing with womenfolk; and pleasures of senses.
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(8) Naëakapàna Sutta
This discourse was given to the Venerable Anuruddha and to
the villagers of Naëakapàna to explain that unless a bhikkhu had
attained the higher stages of Magga and Phala, accomplishments in
supernormal psychic powers may prove to be harmful to him. The
Buddha himself talked about the destinations of the departed persons
not to earn praise and admiration but to arouse enthusiasm and faith
in his disciples.
(9) Goliyàni Sutta
This discourse was given at Ràjagaha by the Venerable Sàriputta to Goliyàni Bhikkhu concerning eighteen dhammas which a forest dwelling bhikkhu should observe.
(10) Kãñàgiri Sutta
This discourse was given at the market town of Kãñàgiri on the advantages of taking meals only before noon and the disadvantages of eating in the evening.
III. Paribbàjaka Vagga
(1) Tevijjavaccha Sutta
Vacchagotta, the wandering ascetic, questioned the Buddha whether it would be true to say that Sabbaññuta ¥àõa was constantly and continuously present to him all the time, while walking or standing, asleep or awake. The Buddha replied that it would not be true to say so. It would be true to say only that the Buddha was accomplished in the three kinds of knowledge, namely, knowledge of the past, power of divine seeing, and knowledge of liberation.
(2) Aggivaccha Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha at Sàvatthi in con-
nection with Vacchagotta who approached the Buddha quite often to
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ask many questions about atta. On this occasion too he asked the Buddha whether there was atta, whether atta was permanent, etc. The Buddha told him he held no theories about atta because he had seen the nature of things as they really were. Then he explained to him the dhamma in some detail.
(3) Mahàvaccha Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha to Vacchagotta at Ràjagaha. On his Visit to the Buddha after a long interval, Vacchagotta no longer troubled the Buddha with his speculations about atta, loka, etc.; instead, he requested to be taught on good and bad deeds (Kusalàkusalaü Kammaü) in brief. The Buddha explained to him the dhamma on good and bad deeds in brief as well as in detail.
Vacchagotta became a disciple of the Buddha and received admission into the Order. Then practising the dhamma as instructed, he ultimately attained Arahatship, realizing Nibbàna. The problems of atta, loka, etc., no longer obsessed him.
(4) Dãghanakha Sutta
This important discourse was given by the Buddha in the Såkarakhata Cave near Ràjagaja, to Dãghanakha, the wandering ascetic, a nephew of the Venerable Sàriputta, in order to remove his wrong views of annihilation. As the Buddha taught him the dhamma contemplation of the body and contemplation of sensation (sukha, dukkha, adukkhama-sukha), his uncle the Venerable Sàriputta was standing behind the Buddha, fanning him. It was only fteen days ago that the Venerable Sàriputta had been admitted into the Order by the Buddha. While following the progress of the discourse, as though shar-
ing the food prepared for another, the Venerable Sàriputta advanced rapidly from the stage of a Sotàpanna which he had already reached, and attained the perfect state of Arahatship with the fourfold Analyti-
cal Knowledge (Pañisambhidà ¥àõa), At the end of the discourse his nephew, the wandering ascetic Dãghanakha, became a Sotàpanna.
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(5) Màgaõóiya Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha at the market town of Kammàsadhamma in the Kuru country in connection with Màgaõóiya, the wandering ascetic, who resented the Buddha’s criticism of his wrong beliefs. The Buddha exhorted him to practice control of the senses and sensuous thoughts. He told the wandering ascetic the story of his renunciation, how he had left his luxurious palaces and how, on discovering the Truth, he found happiness in Arahattaphala which was far superior to any of the sensuous pleasures. Màgaõóiya gave up his wrong views to become a disciple of the Buddha.
(6) Sandaka Sutta
This discourse was given at Kosambã to Sandaka, the wandering ascetic, and his followers by the Venerable ânanda. The Venerable ânanda explained to them the four wrong views of sect-leaders who held there was no existence after death, that there was no evil nor good, no cause for any phenomena, and that there were only aggregates of seven elements. Finally he taught the wandering ascetics the dhamma as expounded by the Buddha. As a consequence of his teaching, Sandaka and his followers abandoned their wrong views and became disciples of the Buddha.
(7) Mahàsakuludàyi Sutta
At one time the Buddha and his company of bhikkhus were residing at Ràjagaha where six leaders of sects were also spending the rains with their respective followers. Then Udàyã, the wandering ascetic, who was visited by the Buddha, extolled the virtues of the Buddha saying that other leaders were sometimes criticized even by their followers, whereas the Buddha was the exception. Even if the Buddha’s disciples left the Order, they did not nd fault with the Buddha nor the Dhamma. They only blamed themselves for not being able to follow his Teaching. Udàyã attributed this difference in reverential respect enjoyed by the Buddha to ve aspects of his virtues. The Buddha rejected Udàyã’s enumeration of his virtues which were mostly attributed to ascetic practices, and explained to him the real cause of the total veneration bestowed on him by his followers.
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(8) Samaõamuõóika Sutta
The wandering ascetic Uggahamana, son of Samaõamuõóika, was teaching that any recluse who refrained from wrong deed, wrong word, wrong thought, and wrong livelihood was a fully accomplished Arahat. The Buddha rejected his assertion, saying that in that case, even an infant sleeping innocently upon his bed could claim to Arahatship. He then explained that it was only the Noble Path of Eight Constituents leading to Right Knowledge and Right Liberation that could bring about realization of Arahatship.
(9) Cåëasakuludàyi Sutta
This discourse was given at Ràjagaha. The wandering ascetic Sakuludàyi asked the Buddha many questions about atta and sãla, and the Buddha explained to him the practice in the Teaching beginning with the precept of not taking the life of a being and ending with the realization of Nibbàna.
(10) Vekhanasa Sutta
This discourse was given at Sàvatthi. The Buddha explained to
Vekhanasa, the wandering ascetic, how happiness accruing from spiritual attainments was superior to that derived from sensuous pleasures. The Buddha also gave the assurance that any honest worker who
would follow his instructions sincerely could enjoy the bliss of spiritual attainments.
IV. Ràja Vagga
(1) Ghañikàra Sutta
This discourse, given by the Buddha while journeying in Kosala, recounts the story of high devotion of Ghañikàra, the potter, who looked after his blind parents and who at the same time attended upon Kassapa Buddha with utter reverence. There was also the account of how Ghañikàra forcibly pulled along his friend, young Jotipàla,
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to where Kassapa Buddha was, to pay respect. After hearing the dhamma discourses young Jotipàla left the household life to be admit-
ted into the Order by Kassapa Buddha. This interesting ancient epi-
sode that had happened in Kassapa Buddha’s time many aeons ago was recounted to the Venerable ânanda by Gotama Buddha standing on the very spot where once stood, a long, long time ago, the house of Ghañikhàra, the potter. The Buddha concluded his story by revealing that young Jotipàla was none other than the present Gotama Buddha.
(2) Raññhapàla Sutta
Raññhapàla, the son of a wealthy brahmin obtained his parents’ permission with great dif culty to become a bhikkhu under the guid-
ance of the Buddha. After twelve years of strenuous endeavour, when he became a full- edged Arahat, he visited his parents’ home. His par-
ents attempted to entice him with wealth and wife back to household life but to no avail. He taught his parents the law of impermanence, anicca; he said he saw nothing alluring in the wealth and the wife.
(3) Maghadeva Sutta
This discourse was given at the Royal mango grove at Mithilà. The Buddha told the Venerable ânanda about the noble tradition laid down by the righteous King Maghadeva. When his hair began to turn white, he gave up the household life leaving his dominions to his eldest son. This tradition was handed down from king to son for generations and generations, over thousands and thousands of years until the reign of King Nimi.
King Nimi had a son by the name of Kaëàrajanaka who did not go forth from home life into homelessness when the time came like his predecessors. Kaëàrajanaka terminated the noble practice laid down by the tradition. He thus became the last person of that tradition.
l. Vide., Majjhimapaõõàsa Pàëi.
3. Paribbàjaka Vagga.
6. Sandaka Sutta, Para. 228.
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The Buddha revealed that he was the King Maghadeva of that ancient time laying down the noble tradition. The Buddha said that that noble tradition did not lead to calm, to higher knowledge. It only led to the realm of Brahmàs. But the noble practice which he was leading now as a Buddha certainly led to the disillusionment with the
ve khandhas, the abandonment of attachment and the cessation of dukkha; to calm, higher knowledge, penetrative insight and realization of Nibbàna. The Buddha then exhorted, “ânanda, continue to follow this good practice which I have laid down. Let you not be the person with whom my tradition ends.”
(4) Madhura Sutta
This discourse was given by the Venerable Mahàkaccàna at Madhura. He refuted the brahmins’ claim that only brahmins were noble and superior, and that others were inferior. He explained to King Madhura that it was one’s morality, not birth that established one’s nobility. Anyone whether Brahmin, Khattiya, Vessa or Sudda, committing a wrong deed would be born again in the states of woe; anyone doing a good deed would be born again in a happy realm. After this discourse by the Venerable Mahàkaccàna, King Madhura, formerly of another faith, took refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saügha.
(5) Bodhiràjakumàra Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha at Susumàragira in the country of Bhagga in connection with the statement made by Prince Bodhi that “sukha, happiness, cannot be attained through sukha; sukha can be attained only through dukkha”. The Buddha said he had also once thought in a similar manner, and recounted the whole story of his renunciation, his struggles with wrong practices, frantic search for the Truth, and ultimate enlightenment. When asked by the prince how long would it take a bhikkhu to achieve, in this very lifetime, the supreme goal of the holy life, Arahatship, the Buddha stipulated
ve attributes for the aspiring bhikkhu. If he was equipped with ve attributes: faith, good health, integrity (not being deceitful), unrelent-
ing zeal, and suf cient intellect to understand the phenomena of ‘aris-
ing and passing away’, and having the Tathàgata as his instructor and
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guide, a bhikkhu would achieve the Arahatship within seven years at most. Under the most favourable circumstances he could become accomplished within half a day.
(6) Aïgulimàla Sutta
This discourse, given by the Buddha at Sàvatthi, describes how Aïgulimàla, the notorious robber and murderer, was tamed by the Buddha, and how he took refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saügha. Although he had the name of Ahiüsaka, Non-violence, he was formerly cruel and murderous and was called Aïgulimàla by people. Being tamed now by the Buddha, he ceased hurting anyone, and started living a life true to his name. He had become an Arahat.
(7) Piyajàtika Sutta
A householder of Sàvatthi whose son had died went to see the Buddha who told him that dear beloved ones formed a source of sorrow as they brought pain and grief. The householder was displeased with what the Buddha said. Gamblers playing with dice just close by the Buddha’s monastery told him differently. They said that loved ones surely brought joy and happiness. King Pasenadi concurred with the gamblers but his queen Mallikà maintained that only what the Buddha said must be true. She justi ed her faith in the Buddha by giving many illustrations of the Buddha’s penetrating and illuminating wisdom. King Pasenadi was nally won over to her view.
(8) Bàhitika Sutta
This discourse was given at Sàvatthi by the Venerable ânanda to King Pasenadi on the bank of the River Aciravatã. He dealt with unwholesome deeds, words and thoughts which were blameworthy and wholesome deeds, words and thoughts which were praiseworthy. King Pasenadi was pleased with the discourse and made a gift of cloth from the country of Bàhiti to the Venerable ânanda.
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(9) Dhammacetiya Sutta
King Pasenadi of Kosala once came to see the Buddha. Entering the dwelling where the Buddha was staying, he fell on his forehead at the feet of the Buddha. When asked by the Buddha why he was showing such extreme humbleness and respect to the body of the Buddha, the king launched eloquently on a eulogy of the Buddha, praising his virtues. The Buddha told his bhikkhus that the words uttered by the king constituted a memorial in honour of the Dhamma and urged them to learn this memorial and recite it frequently.
(10) Kaõõakatthala Sutta
This discourse, given by the Buddha at Uruññà, contains answers to King Pasenadi Kosala’s questions about four classes of people and their destinations after death, about Sabbaññuta ¥àõa, and about the great Brahmà.
V. Bràhmaõa Vagga
(1) Brahmàyu Sutta
The Brahmin Brahmàyu was one hundred and twenty years old when he heard of the fame of the Buddha. He sent his disciple Uttara who was well versed in Vedas to nd out by examining the thirty-two physical characteristics of a great man whether Gotama was indeed an Enlightened Buddha. On Uttara’s good report testifying to the Buddha having the requisite characteristics of a Buddha, Brahmàyu went himself to see the Buddha. Fully satis ed, after hearing the graduated discourse, that Gotama was indeed an enlightened Buddha, he became a devoted disciple and, achieving the third stage of the Path and Fruition, an Anàgàmã before he passed away.
(2) Sela Sutta
Sela was a brahmin of âpaõa market-town, who on hearing about the fame of the Buddha from Keõiya the hermit went to see the
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Buddha accompanied by three hundred young brahmins. After hearing a discourse from the Buddha he became fully convinced that he had indeed seen a truly enlightened Buddha. All of them requested for and received permission from the Buddha to join the Order.
(3) Assalàyana Sutta
Some ve hundred brahmins who had come to Sàvatthi on business attempted to challenge the Buddha on his views with regard to the purity and nobility of the four classes of people. They sent Assalàyana, a highly talented young man well-versed in the Vedas, to contest with the Buddha. The young man’s meeting with the Buddha ended up in his conversion.
(4) Ghoñamukha Sutta
A discussion took place between the Venerable Udena and a brahmin by the name of Ghoñamukha on the subject of the practice of the holy life. The Venerable Udena described four kinds of persons engaged in ascetic practices. After the discourse the Brahmin became a disciple of the Venerable Udena and took his refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saügha.
(5) Caïkã Sutta
Caïkã, a brahmin of Opàsàda Village, came to see the Buddha with a large crowd amongst whom was a young brahmin by the name of Kàpàñika. The young man entered into a discussion with the Buddha about the ‘Three Vedas’ which had been handed down from generation to generation in unbroken tradition. The tradition which the brahmins believed to be the only Truth was likened by the Buddha to a line of blind men each one clinging on to the preceding one.
(6) Esukàrã Sutta
This discourse was given at Sàvatthi in connection with a brah-
min named Esukàrã. In this sutta too the Buddha rejected the brahmin
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classi cation of society into four classes claiming the highest position for the brahmins. It was not only the brahmins who could develop loving-kindness, free from enmity and ill will. Members of other classes also could develop loving-kindness. It was not birth but the practice of wholesome dhamma that made a person noble.
(7) Dhanañjàni Sutta
Dhanañjàni was an old devoted lay disciple of the Buddha. After the death of his rst wife who had great faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saügha, he was no longer diligent in and mindful of the practice of dhamma. His second wife was without faith in the Teaching of the Buddha. To maintain his family he resorted to wrong-
ful means of livelihood. The Venerable Sàriputta put him back on the right path. On his deathbed, he sent for the Venerable Sàriputta who solaced him with the dhamma. This caused him on his death to be reborn in the Brahma world. The Buddha asked the Venerable Sàriputta why he had put the old brahmin only on the way to the infe-
rior Brahma world when a higher attainment was possible for him.
(8) Vàseññha Sutta
A discussion had arisen between two brahmin youths Vàseññha and Bhàradvàja on the origin of a bràhmaõa. Bhàradvàja maintained it was birth, lineage and caste that made a person a bràhmaõa. Vàseññha believed moral conduct and performance of customary duties were essential quali cations to be a bràhmaõa. They went to the Buddha for settlement of their dispute.
The Buddha told them that a person was not a bràhmaõa just
because of his birth if he was full of worldly attachments, or was har-
nessed to greed, ill will, craving, and ignorance. A person became a
bràhmaõa whatever his birth, when he had cut off his fetters of de le-
ments, removed the obstacles of ignorance and attained the knowl-
edge of the Four Noble Truths. The most perfect bràhmaõa was an
Arahat.
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(9) Subha Sutta
This discourse was given on account of Subha, son of the brah-
min Todeyya, at Sàvatthi. Like other brahmins, Subha believed that only householders could accomplish meritorious deeds in a right manner, not those who had gone forth from the household life. The occupation of householders produced great bene ts whereas the occu-
pation of the recluse brought little bene ts. The Buddha removed his wrong views and Subha became a devoted disciple of the Buddha.
(10) Saïgàrava Sutta
Saïgàrava was a young brahmin who was full of pride with learning in the Vedas, entertaining wrong views of his birth. He went to ask the Buddha whether the Buddha claimed, like some samaõas and bràhmaõas, to have attained in this very life, special knowledge and vision, and reached the other shore. The Buddha explained that there were three kinds of samaõas and bràhmaõas who made such claims: those who made the claim through hearsay, having learnt things by hearsay only; those who made the claim by mere reasoning and logic; and nally those who made the claim by personally real-
izing the penetrative insight of the Dhamma unheard of before.
The Buddha told Saïgàrava that he was of this third type and recounted how he had become accomplished in the dhamma by practice and self-realization.
(c) Uparipaõõàsa Pàëi
I. Devadaha Vagga
(1) Devadaha Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha at Devadaha in the country of the Sakyans to refute the wrong views of the Nigaõñhas. The Nigaõñhas believed that whatever a person experienced in this life was caused by former action. They practiced austerity as a penance to put an end to the result of former action. The Buddha taught them the right path that would lead to the end of suffering.
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(2) Pañcattaya Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha to bhikkhus at Sàvatthi to explain the wrong beliefs of other sects speculating on whether the world is nite or in nite, etc.
(3) Kinti Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha at Pisinàrà. The Buddha explained that he taught the dhamma not for the sake of gain, such as robes, alms-food, lodgings, etc., nor in expectation of future happy existences. His teachings, namely, the Four Methods of Steadfast Mindfulness, the Four Right Efforts, etc., in short, the Thirty-seven Factors of Enlightenment were for the attainment of higher knowledge leading to the end of suffering. Whenever there was a dispute ever the doctrine with regard to meanings and words, it should be resolved strictly in accordance with these dhammas.
(4) Sàmagàma Sutta
Nigaõñha Nàñaputta had recently died at Pàvà and his followers had split into two groups. On being informed by ânanda that he was worried lest there be such a schism among the Order, after the passing away of the Buddha, the Buddha taught this discourse on imperfect and perfect teachers and disciples, on disputes and their origin, and on the essentials of his Teaching.
(5) Sunakkhatta Sutta
Bhikkhu Sunakkhatta, a former Licchavã prince, once enquired
of the Buddha whether all the bhikkhus who came to the Buddha
and declared their attainment of Arahatship actually attained it. The
Buddha said some of them actually did attain Arahatship whereas
some deceived themselves; again others claimed Arahatship, knowing full well that they were not entitled to it, simply to trouble him
with unnecessary questions. The Buddha then taught him the essential dhammas in which one must become accomplished before one
could claim Arahatship.
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(6) âneñja-sappàya Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha while he was staying once at Kammàsadhamma, in the country of the Kurus. The Buddha explained to the bhikkhus the dangers of enjoying sensual pleasures, which were transitory, empty and deceptive. He said he had shown them the path leading to imperturbability (âneñja-sappàya), to the realm of Nothingness, to the realm of Neither Consciousness Nor Non-Consciousness, and ultimately to Nibbàna. He then urged the bhikkhus: “Go to the forest, to solitude. Strive hard in meditation.”
(7) Gaõakamoggallàna Sutta
The Buddha was once asked by the Brahmin Gaõaka Moggallàna whether there were systematic rules, practices and methods in his Teaching, just as there were training rules, manuals, guidances in various branches of worldly knowledge. The Buddha told him about the Dhamma giving details about precepts to be observed, disciplinary rules to be followed, various concentrations to be developed and jhànas and paññàs to be achieved step by step.
(8) Gopakamoggallàna Sutta
Two leading brahmins of Ràjagaha asked the Venerable ânanda whether the Buddha had appointed a particular there to be the head of the Saügha after he passed away. ânanda informed them there was no such person. No person could substitute the Buddha. They wanted to know then if the Saügha had agreed upon a certain bhikkhu to be their head. When ânanda told them there was no such person, they wondered how the Saügha could remain in agreement and unity. ânanda then explained to them that they had indeed refuge in the Dhamma and how the Saügha of each locality recited together the Pàtimokkha, the summary of disciplinary rules, every half month.
(9) Mahàpuõõama Sutta
The Buddha was sitting in the midst of a large number of bhikkhus out in the open on a full moon night. All the bhikkhus were intently engaged in meditation. The silence of the night was broken by
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the oldest of the meditating bhikkhus who, with the permission of the Buddha, asked him about the ve aggregates of grasping, how craving developed with respect to each aggregate, and how craving would cease. The Buddha explained each point raised by the bhikkhu to the great bene t of the assembled Saügha.
(10) Cåëapuõõama Sutta
This discourse was given on how to differentiate between a good man and a bad man, with detailed description of the characteristics of good and bad men.
II. Anupada Vagga
(1) Anupada Sutta
This discourse was given at Sàvatthi. The Buddha brought out in
full detail the virtues of one of his two Chief Disciples, the Venerable
Sàriputta, extolling his wisdom which was extensive like the big earth,
describing how, unlike other ordinary disciples who had attained Ara-
hatship, the Venerable Sàriputta went through the practices for devel-
opment of sãla, samàdhi and paññà in a very thorough manner, step
by step, contemplating very intensely on the minutest phenomenon
of ‘arising and perishing’ until he gained the highest goal of the holy
life. The Buddha explained also how the Venerable Sàriputta was fully
accomplished in the Dhamma to deserve the honour of being a Chief
Disciple of the Buddha.
(2) Chabbisodhana Sutta
The Buddha said that when any bhikkhu claimed to the attainment of Arahatship, his claim should not be admitted or rejected outright. His claim should be carefully scrutinized according to the guiding principles provided in this discourse.
(3) Sappurisa Sutta
This describes how a good, worthy man is to be distinguished from a bad, unworthy person enumerating twenty-six characteristics by which each individual is to be judged.
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(4) Sevitabbàsevitabba Sutta
This discourse was given brie y by the Buddha, and the Vener-
able Sàriputta continued to expound it in more detail. It deals with
practices and actions which a bhikkhu should or should not resort
to. Whatever action or practice or object is conducive to one’s spir-
itual progress and development should be resorted to and made use
of; whatever is detrimental to one’s spiritual advancement should be
rejected.
(5) Bahudhàtuka Sutta
This discourse is an analytical study of elements, dhàtu; bases, àyatana; the law of dependent origination; and the right or wrong causes. Only the bhikkhu skilled in these studies may be reckoned as a wise person.
(6) Isigili Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha at Isigili, one of the hills surrounding Ràjagaha. This is an account of why this hill was called by that name and of the many Paccekabuddhas who used to dwell there.
(7) Mahàcattàrãsaka Sutta
This discourse is a detailed exposition on Right Concentration which has its base in the other seven constituent parts of the Noble Path, on twenty meritorious dhammas and on twenty demeritorious dhammas.
(8) ânàpànassati Sutta
ânàpànassati as a method of meditation was explained to a large gathering of bhikkhus including nearly all well-known senior disciples such as the Venerable Sàriputta, Mahà Moggallàna, Mahà Kassapa, Anuruddha, ânanda etc. Development of mindfulness of res-
piration establishes a person in the Four Methods of Steadfast Mind-
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fulness. The Four Methods of Steadfast Mindfulness, being developed, establishes a person in the Seven Factors of Enlightenment. The Seven Factors of Enlightenment, being developed, bring about Insight Knowledge and emancipation.
(9) Kàyagatàsati Sutta
This discourse describes the meditation practice involving contemplation on the thirty-two parts of the body. The practical steps in the method as well as its advantages are fully explained.
(10) Saïkhàrupapatti Sutta
This discourse explains how it is possible to have one’s wish ful lled if one is well established in the ve wholesome dhammas, namely, faith, moral conduct, learning, liberality and wisdom.
III. Suññata Vagga
(1) Cåëasuññata Sutta
The Buddha once told ânanda that he often dwelt in the liberation of the void, Suññata-vihàra. When requested by ânanda, he explained what liberation of the void meant — Liberation through Insight that discerns voidness of self.
(2) Màhasuññata Sutta
Seeing many bhikkhus living together in a crowded dwelling place, the Buddha told ânanda that a bhikkhu should not like living in company. Solitude is most bene cial for a bhikkhu. He urged bhikkhus to look upon him as a sincere friend who would repeatedly point out their faults to help correct them.
(3) Acchariya-abbhuta Sutta
This discourse is an account of the twenty marvellous attributes of the Buddha as extolled by the Venerable ânanda.
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(4) Bàkula Sutta
Bhikkhu Bàkula, aged one hundred and sixty years, met his old friend, the naked ascetic Kassapa, after he had been in the Order of the Buddha for eighty years. Kassapa asked him how often he had indulged in sexual intercourse during those eighty years. Bàkula told his friend the marvellous attributes he possessed as an Arahat, includ-
ing the fact that he became an Arahat after seven days of strenuous endeavour, after which he was completely rid of moral de lements.
(5) Dantabhåmi Sutta
In this discourse the Buddha explained to the novice Aciravata
how a young prince like Prince Jayasena, son of King Bimbisàra could
not hope to know, to see, to realize such dhammas as concentration
and jhànas, living as he did in the lap of luxury, surrounded by pleas-
ures of senses, enjoying the pleasures of senses and consumed and
overwhelmed by the ames of desires. The Buddha pointed out the dif-
ference in outlook between an Arahat and an ordinary uninstructed
person giving the simile of a tamed elephant and a wild elephant of
the forest.
(6) Bhåmija Sutta
This discourse was given by the Venerable Bhåmija to his nephew, Prince Jayasena to explain how Fruition would result by practising the Noble Path of Eight Constituents. The Buddha con rmed that only by following the right Path, namely, the Noble Path of Eight Constituents and not any other Path, Fruition would result. The Buddha gave the similes of attempting to make oil out of sand, squeezing the horns of a cow for milk, churning water to make butter, and rubbing two pieces of wet green wood to make re.
(7) Anuruddha Sutta
This discourse was given by the Venerable Anuruddha to Pañcakaïga, the carpenter, to explain the difference between Appa-
màõa Cetovimutti, liberation through practice of four Brahmavihàra
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Meditation and Mahaggata Cetovimutti, liberation through Kasiõa Meditation using a meditational device.
(8) Upakkilesa Sutta
Once the Buddha left Kosambã because of quarrelling, contentious
bhikkhus and went to Pàcinavaüsa Park where the Venerable Anuruddha, the Venerable Nandiya and the Venerable Kimila were staying. When these bhikkhus informed the Buddha about the aura (obhàsa)
and vision (dassana) of various shapes and forms they perceived in
the course of their meditation, the Buddha taught them about Upakkilesa, mental de lements, that appear at a certain stage in meditation process. They should be on their guard not to be led astray by
these deceptive de lements.
(9) Bàlapaõóita Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha at Sàvatthi on fools and
characteristic behaviour of fools; on how evil thoughts, words and
deeds of fools harm themselves and others; and on how these evil
actions lead fools to states of misery and woe. The utter wretchedness
and intense suffering in such states beggar description. Once a fool,
through his evil actions, found himself in one of the nether regions,
there was very little likelihood for him to rise again to the upper
realms. The chances are more remote than that of a blind turtle to get
his head through a single hole in a yoke which was being tossed about
in a stormy sea.
The discourse deals also with the wise and their characteristics; the wholesome thoughts, words and deeds of the wise, the wholesome effects resulting from such meritorious actions and bliss enjoyed by them in the realms of happiness.
(10) Devadåta Sutta
This is a discourse on evil results arising from evil action, giving details of suffering in realms of misery and woe.
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IV. Vibaïga Vagga
(1) Bhaddekaratta Sutta
This sutta which means ‘a discourse on a night of good meditation’ gives a detailed description of Vipassanà meditation. The Buddha urged the bhikkhus not to dwell in the past which was gone, nor to seek the future which was unattained yet, but to perceive the dhamma in the phenomena presently occurring, at the same time not becoming involved in and attached to them.
(2) ânanda-bhaddekaratta Sutta
This is a discourse in which the Venerable ânanda repeated to the bhikkhus the Bhaddekaratta Sutta, for which performance he was highly commended by the Buddha.
(3) Mahàkaccàna-bhaddekaratta Sutta
This is a detailed exposition by the Venerable Mahàkaccàna on Vipassanà meditation of the ve khandhas as explained by the Buddha in the Bhaddekaratta Sutta. The Venerable Mahàkaccàna was commended by the Buddha for his exposition.
(4) Lomasakaïgiya-bhaddekaratta Sutta
This is a detailed exposition by the Venerable Lomasakaïgiya on Vipassanà meditation of the ve khandhas explained in the Bhaddekaratta Sutta.
(5) Cåëakamma-vibhaïga Sutta
Young Subha, son of the Brahmin Todeyya, was curious to know why some were born in high class families, some in low class families; why some were born rich, others poor; why some were beautiful, others ugly; why some were of good health with a long span of life, others of poor health with a short span of life, etc. He approached the Buddha and asked fourteen questions in all to satisfy his curiosity. The Buddha gave a long discourse on kamma and its resultant effects.
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Deeds, words and thoughts have endless consequences of joy and sorrow to be experienced in this very life and hereafter. Men depend on their own deeds and nothing else for their condition and status in life.
(6) Mahàkamma-vibhaïga Sutta
This is another discourse on kamma and its resultant effects which are most dif cult to foresee. How the workings of kamma were most strange and surprising were explained with reference to four types of individuals.
(7) Saëàyatana-vibhaïga Sutta
This discourse is a detailed analytical exposition on six internal sense bases, six external sense bases, six types of consciousness arising from six types of contact, etc., by the Buddha.
(8) Uddesa-vibhaïga Sutta
In this discourse, the Buddha taught brie y how restraint of the mind with regard to external sense bases and non-attachment to internal sense bases led to the cessation of suffering. The Venerable Kaccàna gave an exposition on this subject which earned him praise from the Buddha.
(9) Araõa-vibhaïga Sutta
This discourse is an exhortation on the practice of the Middle
Path, avoiding the two extremes of indulgence in sensual pleasures
and practice of self-morti cation, and on modes of conduct, not indulg-
ing in backbiting; not keeping to colloquial vocabulary only and not
spurning the conventional usage of the language, but speaking gently,
slowly.
(10) Dhàtu-vibhaïga Sutta
This is an important discourse taught to Pukkusàti, a recluse who had left the homelife inspired by the fame of Gotama Buddha whom
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he had not yet met and whom he was on his way to see. The Buddha
went purposely to meet this recluse in a potter’s hut to teach this dis-
course: A man is made up of six elements, namely, solidity, uidity,
heat, motion, space and consciousness. On analysis, none of these ele-
ments is found to be ‘mine’ or ‘me’ or ‘my self ’. All of them are sub-
ject to the law of impermanence, so are the three types of sensation.
When a bhikkhu perceives the real nature of the physical and mental
phenomena, he becomes endowed with absolute wisdom, Knowledge
of the Noble Truth.
(11) Sacca-vibhaïga Sutta
In this discourse the Buddha taught the bhikkhus the Four Noble Truths as he had done at the time of giving the discourse on the Turn-
ing of the Wheel of Dhamma at Isipatana in Bàràõasã. He then urged the bhikkhus to seek guidance from the two theras, the Venerable Sàriputta and the Venerable Mahà Moggallàna, likening the Venerable Sàriputta to a mother and the Venerable Mahà Moggallàna to a foster-
mother. The Venerable Sàriputta could analyse and explain the Four Noble Truths in detail and lead them to the stage of the rst Path and Fruition. The Venerable Mahà Moggallàna could then lead them on till the highest Path and Fruition, the Arahatship, was achieved.
(12) Dakkhiõà-vibhaïga Sutta
This discourse was given to the Buddha’s foster-mother Mahàpajàpati on the occasion of her offering to the Buddha a set of robes made by her own hand. The Buddha urged his foster-mother to make the offering to the Saügha, the community of bhikkhus. He enumerated fourteen kinds of donations to individuals and seven kinds of donations to the Saügha, explaining the superior bene t accruing from offerings made to the Saügha.
V. Saëàyatana Vagga
(1) Anàthapiõóikovàda Sutta
This discourse was given by the Venerable Sàriputta to Anàthapiõóika on his death-bed. The Venerable Sàriputta enjoined
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him not to grasp at the six internal sense bases, nor the six external sense bases, nor the feelings that arise in relation to them, nor at the six elements (including space and consciousness), nor at the ve aggregates, nor the realms of In nite Space, of In nite Consciousness, of Nothingness, of Neither Consciousness Nor Non-Consciousness. With no attachment to any of them, there would come liberation.
(2) Channovàda Sutta
The Venerable Channa was very ill. The Venerable Sàriputta and Cunda paid him a visit. They gave him solace by giving instruction on Vipassanà meditation. The Venerable Channa died an Arahat.
(3) Puõõovàda Sutta
This discourse was given to Bhikkhu Puõõa by the Buddha on how to practise the holy life in solitude. When the Buddha asked him how he would contend with the dangers which infested the locality where he was going to stay, he told the Buddha of the six categories of fortitude he was endowed with, including indifference to an attack even on his life.
(4) Nandakovàda Sutta
This discourse was given by the Venerable Nandaka to ve hundred bhikkhunãs in the presence of the Buddha one full moon night. He dealt with the twelve categories of internal and external sense bases, the six types of consciousness, their impermanent nature and how to practice the Seven Factors of Enlightenment. He won the approval of the Buddha for his lucid exposition of the Dhamma.
(5) Cåëaràhulovàda Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha to his son Ràhula who was then a bhikkhu of the Order fully mature to receive the highest dhamma. The Buddha exhorted him, in the form of questions and
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answers on the impermanent nature of the twelve sense bases, in consequence of which the Venerable Ràhula attained to Arahatship.
(6) Chachakka Sutta
This discourse was given by the Buddha frequently to many bhikkhus on the six internal sense bases, the six external sense bases, six types of consciousness, six types of contacts, six types of sensation, six kinds of craving and on how their interrelationship led to continuity of phenomena from one existence to another.
(7) Mahàsaëàyatanika Sutta
This discourse is an exposition on how the ignorance of the six categories of dhamma such as the six internal sense bases, etc., gives rise to craving, and craving to suffering. It also explains how, when they are seen as they really are by following the Noble Path of Eight Constituents, the knowledge of the Seven Factors of Enlightenment arises resulting in the perfect Peace of Nibbàna.
(8) Nagaravindeyya Sutta
This is a discourse in which the Buddha explained to the villagers of Nagaravinda the distinction between samaõas and bràhmaõas who deserved honour and homage and those who did not. Only those religious teachers who had discarded the craving that arose out of àyatana dhammas were worthy of veneration.
(9) Piõóapàtapàrisuddhi Sutta
This is an exhortation to bhikkhus to keep themselves pure in mind while going on alms round or while eating their meal, by dis-
carding craving, removing hindrances and developing the knowledge of the Seven Factors of Enlightenment through continuous practice.
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(10) Indriyabhàvanà Sutta
This discourse was given to the Venerable ânanda by the Buddha showing the difference between the control of senses practised by an Arahat and that practised by one still under training. The Buddha explained that feelings of liking, disliking or of indifference that arise from conditioned phenomena could be soon eliminated by the practice of Vipassanà Meditation.
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Chapter VI
Saüyutta Nikàya
This collection of discourses in the Suttanta Piñaka known as
Saüyutta Nikàya has 7762 suttas of varied length, generally short,
arranged in a special order according to subject matter into ve
major divisions: (a) Sagàthà Vagga, (b) Nidàna Vagga, (c) Khandha
Vagga, (d) Saëàyatana Vagga and (e) Mahà Vagga. Each major vagga
is divided into fty-six groups known as saüyuttas — related subjects grouped together. The saüyuttas are named after the subjects
they deal with, for example, Bojjhaïga Saüyutta on the Seven Factors of Enlightenment, or after some principal personalities such as
the Venerable Sàriputta, King Pasenadi of Kosala, or Sakka. Kosala
Saüyutta is a group of discourses concerning King Pasenadi of Kosala,
and Devata Saüyutta deals with devas like Sakka, Indra, Brahmà,
etc. Each saüyutta is further divided into sections which are made
up of individual suttas. Thus the well-known Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta is the rst discourse (sutta) in the second section of Sacca
Saüyutta which comes under the Mahàvagga division of Saüyutta
Nikàya. In the following excerpts from Saüyutta Nikàya, only a few
suttas representing each major division are given.
(a) Sagàthà Vagga Saüyutta Pàëi
This major division of Sagàthà Vagga Saüyutta Pàëi contains eleven saüyuttas with discourses grouped according to characters appearing in them, the king of devas, the devas, the Brahmà, Màra, King of Kosala, bhikkhus and bhikkhunãs. The name of the Vagga, Sagàthà, is derived from the fact that various personalities appearing in the discourses conducted their dialogues or interviews with the Buddha mostly in verse.
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Devatà Saüyutta
On the request of a Brahmà, the Buddha explains in the
Oghataraõa Sutta of this saüyutta that he crosses over the ood of
sensuous desire, of existence, of wrong views and of ignorance neither
by remaining inactive, nor by making strenuous efforts. By remaining
inactive he will be sucked into the whirlpool; by making frantic efforts
he will be swept away in the current of the ood. He follows a middle
course.
The Buddha also teaches in other suttas of this saüyutta that all beings are entangled in the mesh of attachments brought about by six internal sense bases and six external sense objects. The way to escape from these entanglements is to become established in sãla, to develop Concentration Meditation and Insight Meditation in order to be fully accomplished in the higher knowledge of liberation.
Until one becomes fully developed in the knowledge of the Path, tanhà can still give rise to rebirth. This fact is borne out by the story of a deva named Samaõa, given in Accharà Sutta. A certain young man having faith in the Teaching of the Buddha gets himself admitted into the Order. Then taking a meditation subject of his choice, he repairs to a solitary abode in the forest and devotes himself incessantly to the practice of meditation.
His efforts at meditation are very strenuous. Thus striving day and night and getting enervated by lack of suf cient nourishing food, he is suddenly seized with a paralytic stroke which causes him instant death. Although he has put in a great deal of effort in the practice of meditation, he passes away without even attaining the stage of Sotàpanna, the Stream-winner.
Because of tanhà which he has not yet eradicated, he has to go through the round of existences again; but in consequence of the merit he has acquired in the practice of meditation, a magni cent celestial palace awaits him in the celestial abode of the Tàvatiüsa.
By spontaneous manifestation, he appears as if just awakened from sleep, at the entrance of the palace, a celestial being resplend-
ent in full celestial attire. He does not realize that he has taken a new existence in a new world. He thinks he is still a bhikkhu of the human world. The celestial maidens, who are awaiting his arrival,
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bring a body-length mirror and place it in front of the deva. On seeing his re ection in the mirror, he nally realizes that he has left the bhikkhus’ existence and has arisen in the celestial realm.
The Samaõa Deva is greatly perturbed then. He re ects that he
has taken up meditation not to be reborn in the celestial land but to
attain the goal of Arahatta Fruition. So without entering the palatial
building, he repairs hastily to the presence of the Buddha. He asks
of the Buddha how to avoid, and proceed past the Mohana garden,
the Tàvatiüsa celestial abode, full of celestial maidens who to him
appear as demons. The Buddha advises him that the straight path
for a quick escape is the Noble Path of Eight Constituents using the
two-wheeler Vipassanà carriage, tted with the two wheels of physi-
cal exertion and mental exertion. While the Buddha is teaching the
Dhamma in three verses, Samaõa Deva is able to develop quickly suc-
cessive Vipassanà ¥àõas step by step until he attains the rst Path and
Fruition.
Devaputta Saüyutta
In Rohitassa Sutta of this saüyutta, Rohitassa Deva comes to the Buddha with another problem. He tells the Buddha that he was in a former existence a hermit endowed with supernormal psychic power which enabled him to traverse throughout the universe with immense speed. He had travelled with that speed for over one hundred years to reach the end of the world but he did not succeed. He wants to know whether it would be possible to know or see or reach the end of the world where there is no birth nor death by travelling there. The Buddha says he does not declare that there is a world’s end where there is no birth nor death to be known or seen or reached by travelling there. Yet he does not say that there is an ending of suffering without reaching Nibbàna. It is in the fathom long body of oneself with its perception and its mind that the Buddha describes the world, the origin of the world, the cessation of the world and the way leading to the cessation of the world. The Buddha’s way leading to the cessation of the world is the Noble Path of Eight Constituents.
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Kosala Saüyutta
In this saüyutta are interesting suttas which describe frequent meetings of the Buddha with King Pasenadi of Kosala. The king has heard of the fame of the Buddha from his queen Mallikà but has not yet met him. But when at last he meets the Buddha as described in the Dahara Sutta, he puts a direct question whether the Venerable Gotama claims to have attained the Supreme Enlightenment. He says that there are other religious teachers such as Påraõa Kassapa, Makkhali Gosàla, Nigapñha Nàñaputta, Sañcaya, Pakudha and Ajita, with their own order, with their own followers, who are much older than the Buddha and are generally regarded to be Arahats. Even these teachers do not make claim to Supreme Enlightenment.
The Buddha replies that if it can be rightly said of anyone to have attained the Supreme Enlightenment, then it is only of himself that it can rightly be said. The Buddha adds that there are four things that should not be looked down upon and despised because they are young. They are a young prince, a serpent, a re and a bhikkhu. A young prince of noble parentage should not be despised. He might one day become a powerful ruler and wreak royal vengeance. A writhing snake moves very fast; it might attack and bite a heedless man. A small re, when heedlessly ignored might grow in intensity and cause untold damage. A man treating a virtuous bhikkhu with contempt might bring upon himself unwholesome results such as dwindling prosperity and lack of offspring to inherit from him.
Dutiya Aputtaka Sutta describes another occasion when King
Pasenadi calls on the Buddha after he has just taken over an immense
accumulation of wealth belonging to a multi-millionaire who has died
recently. The dead man has left behind treasure worth over one hun-
dred lakhs which, in the absence of any heirs to claim, becomes the
king’s property. The king reports that the dead millionaire was a great
miser, a niggardly person, begrudging even to himself the luxury
of comfortable living. He wore only very rough, threadbare clothes,
eating poor, coarse food and travelled about in an old, roo ess rickety
carriage.
The Buddha con rms that what the king says about the million-
aire is quite true and tells the king the reason for the millionaire’s
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miserliness. In one of his past existences, he met a Paccekabuddha
going round for alms-food. He gave permission to his family to offer
food to the Paccekabuddha and went out to attend to some business.
On his way back, he met the Paccekabuddha whom he asked whether
he had been given any alms-food by his family, and looked into the
bowl. On seeing the delicious food in the bowl, an unwholesome
thought suddenly arose in his mind that it would have been more prof-
itable to feed his servants with such food than to give it away to a Pac-
cekabuddha.
For his good deed of allowing his family to make the offering to a Paccekabuddha he was reborn in the deva world seven times and became a millionaire seven times in the human world. But as a result of the ill thought he had entertained in that previous existence he never had the inclination to live a luxurious life enjoying ne clothes, good food, and riding in comfortable carriages.
The millionaire has now exhausted the good as well as the bad effects of his thoughts and actions with regard to the offering of food to the Paccekabuddha. But unfortunately he has to face the consequences of a more serious evil deed, that of causing the death of his own nephew in a past existence.
The Buddha tells the king that he is therefore reborn, after his death in the human world, in the state of the most intense suffering, Mahàroruva.
Bràhmaõa Saüyutta
Many brahmins of Bhàradvàja clan become devoted disciples of
the Buddha, ultimately attaining Arahatship. At rst, all of them are
quite unfriendly, if not openly hostile. Bhàradvàja Gotta, mentioned in
Dhanañjànã Sutta, is such a brahmin. Although his wife Dhanañjànã is a
disciple of the Buddha, very much devoted to his Teaching, Bhàradvàja
Gotta and his brahmin teachers show great contempt for the Buddha
and his Teaching.
On one occasion when Bhàradvàja is giving a feast to his brah-
min teachers, his wife while in the course of waiting upon these brah-
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mins slips accidentally and, as she tries to regain her balance, blurts out three times in excitement the formula of adoration to the Buddha: ‘Namo Tassa Bhagavato Arahato Sammàsambuddhassa’. Upon hearing the word ‘Buddha’, the brahmin teachers rise up from their seats and run away helter-skelter in all directions just like a ock of crows in whose midst a stone has been thrown.
Telling his wife in a fury that he would defeat the Buddha in a contest of doctrines, Bhàradvàja goes to see the Buddha. The interview ends up with Bhàradvàja asking the Buddha’s permission to enter his Order. He nally attains to Arahatship.
Akkosa Sutta mentions about Bhàradvàja Gotta’s younger brother Akkosaka Bhàradvàja, who on hearing that his elder brother has joined the Buddha’s Order is highly exasperated. Raging with fury, he storms into the presence of the Buddha whom he reviles and reproaches in the most vulgar, offensive, obscene, foul language.
Very calmly and with great compassion the Buddha asks the young Bhàradvàja if he ever has given gifts to friends and relatives. When the young Bhàradvàja replies that he indeed has made offers of gifts to his friends and relatives, the Buddha asks him, “What happens to the gifts if your friends and relatives do not accept them?”
“Well then they remain with me as my own property,” replies Bhàradvàja.
Then the Buddha says, “You have heaped abusive language on us who have not uttered a single word of abuse to you; you have been very offensive and quarrelsome with us who do not offend you nor quarrel with you. Young Bhàradvàja, we do not accept your words of abuse, your offensive and quarrelsome language. They remain with you as your own property.”
Taken by surprise by this unexpected reaction, Bhàradvàja is frightened with the thought that this might be a recluse’s method of casting a spell on him by way of retaliation. He asks the Buddha if he is angry with him for his rude behaviour. The Buddha states that he has long left anger behind. Being free from all mental de lements how could he take offence with him! To meet anger with anger is to sink lower than the original reviler. He is the conqueror who wins a hard won battle by not retaliating anger with anger.
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At the end of the discourse, Akkosaka Bhàradvàja, the younger
brother, also leaves homelife to join the Buddha’s Order. In time, he
too becomes accomplished in higher knowledge and attains to Arahat-
ship.
In Kasi Bhàradvàja Sutta is an account of the Buddha’s encounter with the brahmin Kasi Bhàradvàja who is a rich landowner.
It is sowing time and Kasi Bhàradvàja is preparing to start ploughing operations with ve hundred ploughs. It is made an aus-
picious occasion with distribution of food and with festivities. The Buddha goes to where food is being distributed and stands at one side. Kasi Bhàradvàja, seeing him waiting for food, says to him, “I plough, samaõa, and I sow. Having ploughed and sown, I eat. You too, samaõa, should plough and sow; having ploughed and sown, you shall eat.”
The Buddha replies, “I too plough, brahmin, and I sow, and having ploughed and sown, I eat.”
“We see no yoke or plough or pole or oxen of yours. Yet you claim to be a ploughman. How do you explain yourself?” asks the brahmin.
“The faith which I have had since the time of Sumedhà, the hermit, is the seed. It will grow to hear the fruit of Nibbàna. The sãla with which I keep control of my sense doors is the rain. The two kinds of knowledge, mundane and supramundane, I possess are my plough and yoke. Sense of shame for doing evil and fear of evil deeds are the pole and the handle of the plough. My energy is the ox, and my concentration is the rope with which I put the ox to the yoke. My mindfulness is the ploughshare and the goad. Guarded in my speech and modest in the use of food, these self-restraints serve as a fence round my eld of Dhamma. With my harnessed ox as my energy, I have ploughed on, never turning back until the seed produces the fruit of Nibbàna, the Deathless. Having done such ploughing, I eat now what I have sown and I am free from every kind of suffering.”
Kasi Bhàradvàja is so delighted and impressed with the Buddha’s words that he requests to be regarded as a disciple of the Buddha from that day till the end of his life.
In Gahaññhavandana Sutta the Buddha explains that the brah-
mins well versed in the Vedas as well as kings ruling over human dominions, and devas of Càtumahàràjika and Tàvatiüsa realm bow
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in homage to the Sakka, the king of devas. The Sakka himself shows respect and makes obeisance not only to samaõas who have lived their holy life without any breach of moral conduct for many years but also to the lay disciples of the Buddha who are well established in their faith and who have done meritorious deeds of giving charity, observing the Five, the Eight or the Ten Precepts, and dutifully maintaining their families.
(b) Nidàna Vagga Saüyutta Pàëi
This second major division of Nidàna Vagga Saüyutta Pàëi contains ten saüyuttas, all dealing, with fundamental aspects of the doctrine. The discourses are chie y concerned with the principles of conditionality and interdependence, explained in the detailed formula which is called ‘Pañiccasamuppàda’, Conditioned Genesis or Dependent Origination, consisting of twelve factors.
Various aspects of Pañiccasamuppàda, together with expositions on doctrinal matters concerning practice of the holy life form the main theme of early suttas in these saüyuttas.
Nidàna Saüyutta
In Pañiccasamuppàda Sutta, the rst sutta of this saüyutta, the law
of Dependent Origination outlined in the form of a formula is brie y
explained by the Buddha to ve hundred bhikkhus who are perceived by
the Buddha to be suf ciently developed and ripe for the attainment to
Arahatship. In the Vibhaïga Sutta, the second sutta of this saüyutta,
the law of Dependent Origination is explained in fuller detail to the
same bhikkhus.
In Pañcaverabhaya Sutta, the Buddha lays down the criteria by which the status of attainment of a noble bhikkhu may be judged. If a bhikkhu is freed of the ve dangers arising from ve evil deeds, namely, killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, telling lies and taking intoxicating liquor and drugs; if he is established in the four accom-
plishments of a Sotàpanna, namely, rm faith and con dence in the virtues and attributes of the Buddha, of the Dhamma and of the
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Saügha, and perfect purity in sãla; and if he possesses comprehensive analytical knowledge of the law of Dependent Origination, he is assured of a happy future, with no danger of arising in states of woe and misery and is certain of further advancement in the holy life.
In Puttamaüsåpama Sutta, it is explained that four nutriments, àhàra, are ‘conditions’ necessary for the existence and continuity of beings: (i) ordinary material food (kabalãkàràhàra), (ii) contact of sense organs (phassa) with sense objects, (iii) consciousness (viññàõa), and (iv) mental volitional or will (manosañcetanà).
This sutta is addressed especially to young bhikkhus recently
admitted into the Order. They are enjoined to take their meals with
due re ection on the loathsome nature of food so as not to be over-
come by greed and attachment for it. A bhikkhu should take meals not
with a view to enjoy it or relish it, thereby augmenting craving, but
just to sustain himself in order that the holy life may be lived. A par-
ticularly illuminating parable is used here by the Buddha: A man and
his wife set out on a very long journey accompanied by their beloved
son. Halfway on their journey they ran short of food. With no means
of fresh supply, they plodded on with starvation staring in their face.
The little son soon succumbed to hunger and died. The man and his
wife decided to save their lives by eating the esh of their dead son.
They ate with no relish nor enjoyment but only to sustain themselves
for the rest of the journey.
Other apt parables are given by the Buddha for the understanding of the remaining three nutriments. When one understands the real nature of nutriments on which life depends, one understands the craving, taõhà, responsible for all the suffering. Thereby the way is open to the supreme liberation, the Arahatship.
Susima Paribbàjaka Sutta gives an account of the wandering ascetic Susima who is one of those who join the Buddha’s Order with ulterior motives. After the rains residence many bhikkhus come to pay their respect to the Buddha to whom they report their attainment of Arahatship. When he learns from these Arahats that they possess no supernormal powers such as the Divine Power of Vision, Divine Power of Hearing, or Knowing Other People’s Mind, he is very disappointed. He has come into the Order just to acquire such powers with which to win fame and gain for himself.
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He approaches the Buddha and inquires how the bhikkhus could claim Arahatship when they possess no supernormal powers. The Buddha explains to him that their liberation is through pure Insight Knowledge, not associated with jhàna accomplishments. Through Vipassanà meditation only they have seen the real nature of nàma and råpa (realities of nature, Dhammaññhiti) followed by realization of Nibbàna through Magga ¥àõa.
The Buddha takes him through the same course of meditation, testing by means of questions his understanding of the ve khandhas, their real nature of impermanence, unsatisfactoriness, insubstantiality, nally establishing in him the insight that none of these khandhas is to be regarded as, “This is mine, this is I, this is my self ”. At the end of the discourse he gains full understanding of the Dhamma with the attainment of Arahatship. When he realizes Arahatship himself without coming into possession of the supernormal powers, he confesses to the Buddha the ulterior motive with which he had rst joined the Order, and begs to be pardoned for such evil intentions.
Dhàtu Saüyutta
The natural law of af nity is pointed out by the Buddha in the Caïkama Sutta of this saüyutta while he is staying at the Gijjhakåña Hill near Ràjagaha. He draws the attention of the bhikkhus to the scene outside, where his senior disciples are taking a stroll attended upon by their own group of followers. He says: “Bhikkhus, those many bhikkhus under the leadership of the Venerable Sàriputta are all wise being endowed with much deep knowledge of the Dhamma. Those surrounding the Venerable Mahà Moggallàna are well accomplished in supernormal powers. The Venerable Mahàkassapa and his follow-
ers are strict observers of Dhutaïga austerity practices. The bhikkhus led by the Venerable Anuruddha are fully endowed with the Divine Power of Vision. The Venerable Puõõa and his disciples are adepts at teaching the Dhamma. The Venerable Upàli with his followers are experts in Vinaya rules of discipline and the bhikkhus under ânanda’s guidance are noted for their knowledge in many elds. Devadatta and his many followers are distinguished by their evil ways, thoughts and
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desires. Bhikkhus, in this way are beings grouped together in accordance with their natural bents and tendencies. The law of af nity works in such a way that kindred spirits ock together, those of evil disposition in one group, those of wholesome inclinations in another. This law of af nity has held true in the past, as it is true now and will be true in the future.
Anamatagga Saüyutta
In the various suttas of this saüyutta, the Buddha teaches that the cycle of existence, the saüsàra, represents the continuous arising and passing away of khandhas, àyatanas and dhàtus. This incessant process of evolution and dissolution of dhàtus (the fundamental elements of matter and mind) and khandhas (compounded of the dhàtus) is endless. Blinded by avijjà, ignorance, and by nãvaraõas, hin-
drances, and fettered by taõhà, craving, beings have been passing from one existence to another round and round the cycle of saüsàra, for immeasurable periods of time. To bring home this fact of immen-
sity of suffering undergone by beings, the Buddha has given many similes in this saüyutta, most illustrative of which are those of the four oceans and the Vepulla Mountain given in the Assu Sutta. The tears shed through the ages by each being on account of suffering due to disease, death, separation from the loved ones, association with the unloved ones would ll the four oceans to the brim. The bones left behind by a being after death in each existence, if collected together at a certain place and preserved from loss and decay, would be as high as the Vepulla Mountain which lies north of the Gijjhakåña Hill.
The only way to escape from this round of endless suffering is to perceive the real nature of the khandhas by means of Vipassanà meditation until one becomes disenchanted with them; and thus by abandoning craving for and attachment to them one attains liberation through realization of Nibbàna.
The Buddha teaches in other suttas that one should in the meanwhile develop loving-kindness towards all sentient beings with the realization that, during the immeasurably long passage through the saüsàra, there is no being who has not been one’s mother, father, sister, brother or one’s son or daughter, relative or friend.
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Kassapa Saüyutta
In the Candåpama Sutta of this saüyutta the Buddha lays down codes of conduct for bhikkhus, giving the example of the moon. Just as the moon sheds its light equally on every object or person so also a bhikkhu should equally treat everyone, young or old or of middle age, showing favouritism to none, nor hostility to any. He must deal with them with due regard, humility and meekness. Mindfulness should be ever present in his relations with all classes of people. For example, when a certain person tries to obtain his drinking water from an old well or from a riverbank of loose sand or from down a precipice, he approaches the source of water with great care, controlling his move-
ments and actions. Much in the same way should a bhikkhu conduct himself with great mindfulness in his dealings with all classes of people.
In teaching the Dhamma to lay disciples, if his motive is to win gain and fame for himself, then his teaching should be regarded as impure. The Dhamma should always be taught only out of compassion and with pure thought so that the Dhamma which is excellent in the beginning, excellent in the middle and excellent in the ending, namely, the Dhamma on sãla, samàdhi and paññà, could be heard, understood and practised by the listener.
In the Saddhammappañiråpaka Sutta, the Buddha outlines the conditions under which the Teaching would decline or under which it would prosper. The Buddha gives the discourse in answer to a question asked by the Venerable Mahàkassapa why it is that in former days when there were only a few disciplinary rules promulgated by the Buddha, there were a large number of Arahats; now that the disciplinary rules have multiplied, only a few attain to Arahatship.
The Buddha explains that the number of disciplinary rules increases in proportion to the deterioration in the moral state of beings. So long as no spurious and false teaching appears in the three branches of the Teaching (pariyatti, theoretical learning; pañipatti, practice; pañivedha, fruits of the practice), so long will the Teaching remain genuine, pure, and untarnished. But when spurious and false teaching appears, this Teaching with its three branches will decline gradually until it vanishes altogether, much in the same way as genuine gold disappears when imitation gold is introduced to take its place.
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The Buddha concludes: “And Kassapa, just as iron is destroyed by rust, it is the members of the Order who are corrupt, immoral, who cannot hope to attain higher knowledge, who will bring about the downfall of the Teaching.”
In the last few suttas of Nidàna Vagga are discourses that describe the fearful destiny of corrupt bhikkhus and bhikkhunãs and those lay people who have done evil deeds in previous lives. The Venerable Mahà Moggallàna sees them suffering intensely in the Peta world and describes their conditions vividly. The Buddha con rms what the Venerable Moggallàna has recounted.
(c) Khandha Vagga Saüyutta Pàëi
The main theme of most suttas in this division is, as the name implies, khandhas, the ve aggregates that constitute what is regarded as a being. Each of the components of these aggregates, namely, matter, sensation, perception, mental concomitants and consciousness is shown to be a bundle of dukkha, suffering. Made up of thirteen saüyuttas, Khandha Vagga forms an important collection of doctrinal discussions on such topics as atta, anatta, eternity, and annihilation.
The Nakulapitu Sutta gives an account of the advice given to Nakulapità, an ageing disciple of the Buddha. He asks for advice from the Buddha on how to conduct and keep himself free from the pains of old age and disease. The Buddha explains that råpakkhandha, the material body being a bundle of dukkha, is subjected constantly to the pains of old age and disease; but the mental complex could be kept free of agony and pain by keeping it unde led with impurities. A more detailed exposition of this brief explanation of the Buddha is given to Nakulapità by the Venerable Sàriputta. The uninstructed common worldling clings to the ve aggregates through craving and conceit, and holds the wrong view that each of the aggregates (råpa, vedanà, saññà, saïkhàra and viññàõa) is self, atta. Even as he clings to the
ve aggregates as atta these aggregates manifest their own oppressive characters by in icting pain of old age, pain of disease, pain of de le-
ments (kilesa). Because of these oppressive pains, the uninstructed common worldling is subjected to sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and
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despair. But when the worldling becomes instructed and has become accomplished in the Thirty-Seven Factors of Enlightenment, he does not cling to the ve aggregates through craving, conceit or holding wrong views of self. Then even though the ve aggregates manifest their own characteristics of being oppressive, he is no longer subjected to mental af ictions of sorrow, lamentations, pain, grief and despair.
In the Bhàra Sutta, the ve groups of grasping (Pañcupàdànakkhandha) are designated as a burden, a heavy load. It is craving for sense objects, craving for existence, craving for non-existence which is responsible for this heavy burden being borne along. Realization of the Noble Truth of Cessation, Nibbàna, is where the craving is completely eradicated, where this heavy load is nally discarded.
The Yamaka Sutta explains that the ve aggregates are of an impermanent nature; they should be looked upon as one’s enemies. Understanding their real nature of impermanence, unsatisfactoriness, insubstantiality, the twenty kinds of wrong views of self should be discarded so that one may not be set upon by these enemies.
The Vakkali Sutta gives an account of the Buddha’s visit to the
ailing Bhikkhu Vakkali upon his request. The great compassion of the
Buddha becomes manifest in this account. When Vakkali informs the
Buddha that for a long time he has been longing to set his eyes upon
the Buddha, the Buddha gently reproaches him: “Vakkali, what is
there in seeing the decomposing body of mine? It is enough to see the
Dhamma. He who has seen the Dhamma has seen me. This body of
mine is like all else — always rotting away, falling into decay.” Then
the Buddha teaches him the dhamma on the impermanence of all
things, their unsatisfactoriness and insubstantiality and nally shows
him the way to liberation.
Of the ve aggregates, the Buddha says it is better for a person to
mistake his physical body as atta, self, rather than mind or conscious-
ness, because the physical body appears more solid and substantial
than thought or mind which constantly changes faster than the physi-
cal body.
The Khemaka Sutta records an illuminating conversation between a bhikkhu named Khemaka and a group of bhikkhus who want to verify the stage of his attainments. When the bhikkhus ask him if
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he sees self or anything pertaining to self in the ve aggregates, Khemaka replies “No.” But when the bhikkhus suggest that, if so, he must be an Arahat free from de lements, Khemaka replies that though he does not nd self or anything pertaining to self in the ve khandhas, he is not an Arahat free of taints. He still has a vague feeling “I am” although he does not clearly see “This is I” with respect to matter, sensation, perception, mental formations or consciousness.
His vague feeling is likened to the smell of a ower: It is neither the smell of the petals, nor of the colour, nor of the pollen, but the smell of the ower. He then goes on to explain that even if a person retains the feeling “I am” at the early stages of realization, as he progresses further and attains to higher stages, this feeling of “I am” disappears altogether, just as the smell of soap lingers in a freshly washed cloth and disappears after a time when it is kept in a box.
In the Puppha Sutta, the Buddha declares that he is not quar-
relling or arguing with the world; it is only the world with its devas, màras, kings and people that is disputing with him. To proclaim the truth is not engaging in disputes. He speaks only what wise men hold to be true. Wise men say that there is no corporeality, sensation, per-
ception, mental formations or consciousness which is stable, perma-
nent, enduring. He says the same. Wise men say that there is only corporeality, sensation, perception, mental formations or conscious-
ness which is unstable, impermanent, unenduring. He also says so.
“In this changing world, there are only things which are subject to constant change and decay. Perceiving their real nature, I declare that the world is compounded of things subject to decay and decomposition, namely, the aggregates of matter, sensation, perception, mental formations and consciousness, which are incessantly rising and passing away. There is nothing else besides these perishing aggregates. Bhikkhus, I teach this dhamma in a brief manner. I also teach this dhamma more comprehensively and completely. But if the uninstructed common worldling remains unperceiving and unknowing in spite of very enlightening discourses, how can I help? Bhikkhus, various kinds of lotus grow in water, develop in water, rise above water, and remain there unpolluted by water; so also I was born in this world, I grew up in this world. I developed in this world and rose high above it without being attached to it, without being affected by it”.
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In the Pheõapiõóåpama Sutta, the aggregate of råpa is likened to froth; it is unstable, impermanent, constantly rising, and vanishing. It is therefore not self. The aggregate of vedanà is likened to an air bubble. The various sensations are just like bubbles, disappearing fast, impermanent, untrustworthy, of the nature of anicca, dukkha and anatta. Sense perception which apprehends whatever is seen, heard, smelt, tested, touched or known, is likened to a mirage. What is con-
sidered by a samaõa as a being, a man, a woman or self is an optical illusion like a mirage. In reality, it is merely a phenomenon of inces-
sant arising and vanishing. Saïkhàrà, volitional activities, are likened to plantain trunks. A plantain trunk is made up of layers of brous material with no substantial, solid inner core. Saïkhàra is like the plantain trunk void of inner substance. Consciousness is like a conju-
ror’s trick. It arises and vanishes instantly. Consciousness arises not as one wishes, but as conditioned by its own cause and circumstance.
(d) Saëàyatana Vagga Saüyutta Pàëi
This division is made up of ten saüyuttas or groups. It deals mainly with the six sense organs or bases of contact named internal sense bases (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind), six corresponding sense objects, known as external sense bases (visible form, sound, odour, taste, tangible things and mind-objects), and consciousness that arises in relation to each pair of these internal and external sense bases. There are expositions on the impermanent nature of these sense bases and how relinquishing of attachment to them results in liberation. The sensation arising from coming together of the sense bases and consciousness is shown to be of three kinds: pleasant, unpleasant, indifferent, none of which is permanent; each one of these is the cause of craving which in turn is the root of all suffering. Concise but illuminating expositions on Nibbàna are found in many suttas. So also are there practical guides for Vipassanà meditation.
In the very rst two suttas, the Buddha explains that the six inter-
nal sense bases and six external sense bases have the nature of imper-
manence; being impermanent, they are really suffering and not self. “Bhikkhus, realizing their true nature, you should not regard these
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twelve sense bases as ‘This is mine’, ‘This is I’, ‘This is my self ’. Contemplate on them steadfastly, constantly, until Vipassanà Insight into their real nature arises.” The Buddha continues to explain that insight into the true nature of the twelve âyatanas will develop dispassion and disenchantment for them. Being disenchanted with them, there is no craving, clinging, thereby achieving the Path and Fruition.
In the famous âditta Sutta, the re sermon, delivered at Gayàsisa to one thousand ascetics formerly devoted to re-worship but recently converted and admitted into the Order as bhikkhus, the Buddha explains that each of the six sense bases and the six sense objects is burning; each is burning with the re of lust, with the re of hate, with the re of ignorance. Each is burning with the re of birth, ageing and death; with the re of sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair. Six forms of consciousness arising in relation to the six sense bases are also burning; the six contacts and the six sensations resulting from them are also burning.
The Buddha explains further that when a bhikkhu who has prac-
tised the dhamma develops Vipassanà Insight and perceives that each of the bases is burning, he becomes disenchanted with it. Then crav-
ing fades away. With the fading of craving, he is liberated. And when liberated, there is knowledge that he is liberated. At the end of the discourse, one thousand former worshippers of re attain Arahatship.
In the Pañhama Migajàla Sutta, the Buddha’s de nition of a bhikkhu who lives in solitude is very edifying. When a bhikkhu unmindfully takes delight in the six sense objects, regards them wrongly as ‘This is mine’, ‘This is I’, ‘This is my self ’, craving for them arises in him and he becomes attached to fetters. Such a bhikkhu in whom craving has arisen is regarded as one living with a compan-
ion, even if he lives alone deep in a forest away from towns and vil-
lages. When, however, he mindfully perceives the true nature of the
six sense bases and objects, he does not wrongly hold on to them as ‘This is mine’, ‘This is I’, ‘This is my self ’ and craving for them does not arise in him. Such a bhikkhu in whom craving has not arisen is said to be living in solitude without any companion even if he lives in the midst of people, in towns or villages.
The Puõõa Sutta gives an account of a bhikkhu by the name of Puõõa who asks for instruction from the Buddha on a suitable sub-
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ject on which he can meditate in solitude. The Buddha advises him to contemplate on the true nature of the six sense bases and objects. When he perceives their true nature, no craving for them will arise in him. Eradication of craving will result in liberation and attainment of Arahatship. After receiving the instruction, the bhikkhu informs the Buddha of his intention to reside in a very distant and remote land. The Buddha tells him that it is a wild country inhabited by savage tribes, and asks him how he intends to cope with the dangers and hazards that would face him. The answer given by the bhikkhu provides a model lesson in fortitude and endurance.
The bhikkhu says, if he were menaced with invectives and curses or attacked physically, or if he had stones thrown at him or if he were hit with sticks or cut with swords, or pierced with spears, he would bear them with endurance with no malice against the savage tribes. Even if his head were to be chopped off he would feel he was luckier than those noble ones who had to commit suicide to be released from the sufferings of the khandhas.
The Buddha remarks, “Well said, bhikkhu, well said. I believe you are quali ed to lead a solitary life in that wild country. You will overcome all dif culties.”
As presaged by the Buddha, the bhikkhu is able to overcome all hostilities and dif culties in his new residence and to convert ve hun-
dred men and ve hundred women so that they come to take refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saügha. And during the very
rst vassa residence, practising the meditation as instructed by the Buddha, the Bhikkhu Puõõa attains Arahatship, fully accomplished in the three vijjàs.
In the Bhàradvàja Sutta, an interesting interview between King Udena and the Venerable Piõóola Bhàradvàja is described. King Udena approaches the Venerable Piõóola Bhàradvàja while he is meditating at the foot of a tree in the king’s park. The king remarks that many young men have abandoned sensual pleasures and led the holy life. They maintain the holy practice throughout their life. The king enquires, “What is the means by which they maintain the purity of their holy life?” The bhikkhu replies that they keep to the pure life by training themselves as instructed by the Buddha to regard a woman
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of their mother’s age as their mother, a woman of their sister’s age as their sister, and a girl of their daughter’s age as their daughter.
The king is not satis ed with the answer. He argues that even if a bhikkhu trains himself in the said manner, it is no guarantee for the non-arising of impure thoughts in him in connection with a female person. The Venerable Piõóola Bhàradvàja explains further they prac-
tise meditation on the foulness of a body by contemplating on the thirty-two constituent parts of the body. The king is still not con-
vinced; he maintains that, for older bhikkhus with more mature expe-
rience, who are well established in mindfulness and concentration, contemplation on the thirty-two constituent parts of the body might prove to be salutory; but this type of meditation for younger bhikkhus might have an adverse effect, exciting lust and passion instead of aver-
sion for the human body. Only when the Venerable Piõóola Bhàradvàja tells him that the bhikkhus practise restraint of the six faculties keep-
ing a close watch on the doors of the six senses that the king agrees that purity of the holy life is possible under such circumstances.
In the Pañhama Dàrukkhandhopama Sutta, the discourse given by the Buddha on the bank of the River Ganges at Kosambã, the Buddha uses the simile of a log oating down the river. He says that if the log does not get stranded on either of the two banks, nor sinks in the middle of the river, nor gets salvaged and deposited on the bank by some one, nor is retrieved by men or devas, nor sucked in by a whirlpool, and if it does not get decomposed on the way, it will be carried by the current till its destination, the ocean, is reached.
In this simile, the near bank means the six internal sense bases;
the far bank represents the six external sense objects; sinking in
the mid-river means getting immersed in sensuous desires; being salvaged and deposited on a bank means being hindered by one’s own
conceit; being retrieved by men means doing some services or running errands for men; being retrieved by devas means practising the
holy life with the deva realm as one’s objective; being sucked in a
whirlpool means wallowing in sensual pleasures; getting decomposed
on the way means becoming corrupt, immoral, heedless of the disciplinary rules. If a bhikkhu manages to steer himself clear of all these
obstacles, he will be carried along by the current of Right View till he
reaches his destination, Nibbàna.
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In the Chappàõakopama Sutta, the Buddha teaches that a bhikkhu practising the holy life must exercise control of his sense faculties. The six sense faculties may be likened to six animals, namely, a snake, a crocodile, a giant bird, a dog, a jackal and a monkey. Suppose each animal is bound by a rope and the ropes are tied together into a single knot. When they are left in this state, each animal will try to get to its own habitat, the snake to its underground hole, the crocodile to the river, etc. In this way they will pull and struggle against one another until they become exhausted and are dragged along by the strongest of them. The mind of a bhikkhu with unrestrained sense faculties will be impelled by the senses towards corresponding sense objects.
But suppose each animal is bound by a separate rope which is fastened to a pole rmly planted in the ground. Each animal will make furious attempts to return to its home and becoming exhausted nally will stand, sit, curl or lie down quietly near the post. Similarly by practising contemplation of the body, Kàyagatàsati, the sense faculties are placed well under control. Mindfulness of the body serves as the rm post to which each of the faculties is tied down.
Dukkarapañhà Sutta states that in the Teaching of the Buddha, it is dif cult rst to become a member of the Order as a novice and as a bhikkhu. Secondly, it is dif cult to be happy and comfortable in
the Order with its disciplinary rules. Thirdly, even if one stays the course and remains in the Order, it is dif cult for one to practise con-
centration meditation and Vipassanà meditation to attain to higher
stages of knowledge. When fully endowed with supporting pàramãs (perfections), a bhikkhu who gets instruction in the morning and starts practising meditation in the morning may be fully liberated by
the evening; if he gets instruction in the evening and starts practising meditation in the evening he may be fully liberated by the morning.
A wealthy householder by the name of Citta gures quite promi-
nently in some of the suttas of this division. In Nigaõñha Nàñaputta Sutta, Nigaõñha Nàñaputta nds himself unable to accept the view
expressed by the Buddha that there is jhàna and samàdhi free from vitakka and vicàra. He discusses this problem with Citta, the wealthy householder, who is an Ariya disciple of the Buddha. Citta tells him: “I believe there is jhàna and samàdhi free from vitakka and vicàra, not
because of my faith in the Buddha but because of my own achieve-
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ment and realization.” Citta explains that he has personally experienced jhàna samàdhi unaccompanied by vitakka and vicàra and has no need to rely on others for believing this.
The same Citta used to have in his younger days a close friend
who later became the naked ascetic Kassapa. Each has gone his
own separate way and the two friends meet again only after thirty
years. Citta asks his friend whether by living the ascetic life he has
gained any thing more than what could be achieved by the wholesome
dhamma of ordinary people. The ascetic Kassapa admits that he has
nothing to show besides his nakedness, his shaven head and accumulation of dust on his body.
When asked in return what he himself has gained by being a
disciple of the Buddha and following the Path as instructed by his
Teacher, Citta informs him that he has become fully accomplished
in the four jhànas, and having removed the ve fetters, is now an
Anàgàmã, a Non-returner. The naked ascetic, impressed by his achieve-
ments, tells Citta that he wants to be a disciple of the Buddha. Citta
introduces him to the leading bhikkhus and helps him to get admis-
sion into the Order. With the guidance of the theras and encourage-
ment of his friend Citta, the ex-ascetic Kassapa puts in such an effort
in the practice of meditation that in no time he gains the supreme goal
of Arahatship.
In the Saïkhadhama Sutta, the Buddha points out the wrong views held by Nigaõñha Nàñaputta on kamma and its resultant effects. According to the village headman Asibandhakaputta, his Teacher Nigaõñha Nàñaputta teaches that every one who commits evil deeds of killing, lying, etc. is de nitely bound to be reborn in states of woe. Whatever action is performed in a greater frequency, that action tends to determine the destiny of a being. The Buddha points out the fallacy in the two statements, one contradicting the other. An individual does not often commit the evil deed, for instance, of killing. Other actions besides killing are performed by him in a more frequent manner; hence, according to Nigaõñha Nàñaputta, he will not be destined to states of woe for his evil act of killing.
Then the Buddha explains that only very heinous acts such as killing of one’s own parents, creating a schism in the Saügha, etc. bring the dire resultant effect of certain destiny in the states of woe.
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Other misdeeds, physical, vocal or mental, cannot be regarded as to lead with certainty to unhappy destinations. Instead of just feeling remorseful and penitent over one’s particular evil deed, one should recognize it to be evil, and resolve not to repeat a similar unwholesome action, and follow it with the practice of concentration and Vipassanà meditation.
Thus abandoning all evil deeds and doing only wholesome deeds together with development of Brahmavihàra Bhàvanà till accomplished in jhàna, one can escape from the unhappy consequences of one’s evil actions and look forward to a better future. This Saïkhadhama Sutta establishes the fact that as in matter of practice so also in the matters of views, the Buddha takes the Middle Path.
In the Bhadraka Sutta, the Buddha explains the origin of suffer-
ing by giving illuminating examples. The village headman Bhadraka wants to know the cause of suffering that af icts mankind. In reply, the Buddha asks him to think of his son and imagine that his son is meeting with unexpected misfortunes, or getting arrested by the king’s order or facing a severe punishment. Bhadraka imagines as he is told and nds that such thoughts give rise to sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, grief and despair in him. When he imagines a stranger to be placed in a similar situation, facing similar predicament, he nds that he is not troubled at all with any mental agony. He explains to the Buddha that the difference in his mental reaction to the two situations lies in the fact that he loves his son with a parent’s love and is very fond of his son, whereas he has no such feeling towards the stranger.
Next the Buddha asks him if any love, passion or desire arises in him before he meets or sees or hears about the woman who has become his wife. Bhadraka replies that only when he meets, sees and hears about her that he develops passion and attachment towards his wife. When the Buddha asks him further whether he will suffer from sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, grief, despair, if anything unto-
ward happens to his wife, he confesses that he will suffer more than these agonies; he might even lose his life through intense suffering.
The Buddha points out then that the root cause of suffering in the world is craving, greed, passion and desire that engulf mankind. It has been so in the past, as it is now and so it will be in the future.
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(e) Mahà Vagga Saüyutta Pàëi
The last Vagga of Saüyutta Nikàya is made up of twelve
saüyuttas, the list of which gives a clear indication of the subjects
dealt with in this division: Magga Saüyutta, Bojjhaïga Saüyutta, Satipaññhàna Saüyutta, Indriya Saüyutta, Sammappadhàna Saüyutta, Bala Saüyutta, Iddhipàda Saüyutta, Anuruddha Saüyutta, Jhàna
Saüyutta, ânàpàna Saüyutta, Sotàpatti Saüyutta and Sacca Saüyutta.
The main doctrines which form the fundamental basis of the Buddha’s
Teaching are reviewed in these saüyuttas, covering both the theoretical and practical aspects. In the concluding suttas of the vagga, the
ultimate goal of the holy life, Arahatta Phala, Nibbàna, end of all suffering, is constantly kept in full view together with a detailed description of the way of achieving it, namely, the Four Noble Truths and the
Noble Path of Eight Constituents.
In the opening suttas it is pointed out how friendship with the good and association with the virtuous is of immense help for the attainment of the Path and Perfection. It is one of the supporting factors conducive to the welfare of a bhikkhu. Not having a virtuous friend and good adviser is a great handicap for him in his endeavours to attain the Path.
In the Kuõóaliya Sutta, the wandering ascetic Kuõóaliya asks the Buddha what his objective is in practising the holy life. When the Buddha replies that he lives the holy life to enjoy the Fruits of the Path and the bliss of liberation by knowledge, the ascetic wants to know how to achieve these results. The Buddha advises him to cultivate and frequently practise restraint of the ve senses. This will establish the threefold good conduct in deed, word and thought. When the threefold good conduct is cultivated and frequently practised, the Four Foundations of Mindfulness will be established. When the Four Foundations of Mindfulness are well established the Seven Factors of Enlightenment will be developed. When the Seven Factors of Enlightenment are developed and frequently applied, the Fruits of the Path and liberation by knowledge will be achieved.
In the Udàyi Sutta, there is an account of Udàyi who gives con rmation of such achievements through personal experience. He
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tells how he comes to know about the ve khandhas from the
discourses, how he practises contemplation on the arising and ceasing
of these khandhas, thereby developing Udayabbaya ¥àõa which,
through frequent cultivation, matures into Magga Insight. Progressing
still further by developing and applying frequently the Seven Factors
of Enlightenment he ultimately attains Arahatship. In many suttas are
recorded the personal experiences of bhikkhus and lay disciples who
on being af icted with serious illness are advised to cultivate and
practise the Seven Factors of Enlightenment. They recount how they
are relieved, not only of pains of sickness but also of suffering that
arises from craving.
In Sakuõagghi Sutta, the bhikkhus are exhorted by the Buddha
to keep within the con nes of their own ground, i.e., the Four Founda-
tions of Mindfulness, namely, contemplation of body, sensation, mind
and mind-objects. They can roam freely in the safe resort guarded by
these outposts of Four Foundations of Mindfulness, unharmed by lust,
hate and ignorance. Once they stray outside their own ground, they
expose themselves to the allurements of the sensuous world. The para-
ble of falcon and skylark illustrates this point. A erce falcon suddenly
seizes hold of a tiny skylark which is feeding in an open eld. Clutched
in the claws of its captor, the unfortunate young bird bemoans its
foolishness in venturing outside of its own ground to fall a victim to
the raiding falcon. “If only I had stayed put on my own ground inher-
ited from my parents, I could easily have beaten off this attack by the
falcon.” Bemused by this challenging soliloquy, the falcon asks the sky-
lark where that ground would be that it has inherited from its parents.
The skylark replies, “The interspaces between clods of earth in the
ploughed elds are my ground inherited from my parents.” “All right,
tiny tot, I shall release you now. See if you can escape my clutches
even on your own ground.”
Then standing on a spot where three big clods of earth meet, the
skylark derisively invites the falcon, “Come and get me, you big brute.”
Burning with fury, the falcon sweeps down with erce speed to grab
the mocking little bird in its claws. The skylark quickly disappears
into the interspaces of the earth clods, but the big falcon, unable to
arrest its own speed, smashes into the hard protruding clods to meet
its painful death.
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In Bhikkhunupassaya Sutta, the Buddha explains for ânanda’s bene t two methods of meditation. When established in the Four Foundations of Mindfulness, a bhikkhu will experience a bene cial result, gradually increasing. But should his mind be distracted by external things during the contemplation on body, sensation, mind or mind-object, the bhikkhu should direct his mind to some con denceinspiring object, such as recollection of the virtues of the Buddha. By doing so, he experiences joy, rapture, tranquillity and happiness, which is conducive to concentration. He can then revert back to the original object of meditation. When his mind is not distracted by external things, no need arises for him to direct his mind to any con denceinspiring object. The Buddha concludes his exhortation thus: “Here are trees and secluded places, ânanda. Practise meditation, ânanda. Be not neglectful lest you regret it afterwards.”
As set out in the Ciraññhiti Sutta, the Venerable ânanda takes
this injunction to heart and regards the practice of the Four Methods
of Steadfast Mindfulness as of supreme importance. When a bhikkhu
by the name of Badda asks the Venerable ânanda, after the death
of the Buddha, what will bring about the disappearance of the
Buddha’s Teaching, the Venerable ânanda replies, “So long as the
practice of the Four Methods of Steadfast Mindfulness is not neglected,
so long will the Teaching prosper; but when the practice of the
Four Methods of Steadfast Mindfulness declines, the Teaching will
gradually disappear.”
ânàpànassati meditation, one of the methods of body contemplation, consists in watching closely one’s in-breath and outbreath and is rated highly as being very bene cial. In the Mahà Kappina Sutta, the bhikkhus inform the Buddha, “We notice, Venerable Sir, that bhikkhu Mahà Kappina is always calm and collected, never excited, whether he is in company or alone in the forest!” “It is so, bhikkhus. One who practises ânàpànassati meditation with mindfulness and full comprehension remains calm in body and collected in mind, unruf ed, unexcited.”
The Icchànaïgala Sutta describes how the Buddha himself once stayed for the rains-residence of three months in Icchànaïgala forest grove in solitude practising ânàpànassati meditation most of the time. ânàpànassati meditation is known as the abode of the Enlightened Ones, the abode of the Noble Ones.
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When fully accomplished in the cultivation of the Seven Factors of Enlightenment, through practice of body contemplation or ânàpànassati meditation, one becomes rmly established in unshakable con dence in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saügha. The moral conduct of such a person, through observance of precepts, is also without blemish. He has reached, in his spiritual development, the stage of the Stream-winner, Sotàpatti Magga, by virtue of which, he will never be reborn in states of woe and misery. His path only leads upwards, towards the three higher stages of accomplishment. He has only to plod on steadfastly without looking backwards.
This is explained in the Pañhama Mahànàma Sutta, by the simile
of an earthern pot lled partly with gravel and stones and partly with
fat and butter. By throwing this pot into water and smashing it with a
stick, it will be seen that gravel and stones quickly sink to the bottom
while fat and butter rise to the surface of the water. Likewise, when a
person who has established himself in the ve wholesome dhammas
of faith, conduct, learning, charity and insight dies, his body remains
to get decomposed but his extremely puri ed mental continuum con-
tinues in higher states of existence as birth-linking consciousness, pati-
sandhi citta.
In the concluding suttas are expositions on the Middle Path, the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Path of Eight Constituents.
The Buddha’s rst sermon, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, appears in the last saüyutta, namely, Saccasaüyutta.
The Buddha did not make his claim to supremely perfect enlight-
enment until he had acquired full understanding of the Four Noble
Truths. “As long, O bhikkhus, as my knowledge of reality and insight
regarding the Four Noble Truths in three aspects and twelve ways
was not fully clear to me, so long did I not admit to the world with
its devas, màras and brahmàs, to the mass of beings with its recluses,
brahmins, kings and people that I had understood, attained and real-
ized rightly by myself the incomparable, the most excellent perfect
enlightenment.”
The Buddha concluded his rst sermon with the words “This is my last existence. Now there is no more rebirth for me.”
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Chapter VII
Aïguttara Nikàya
This Collection of Discourses, Aïguttara Nikàya, containing 9557
short suttas is divided into eleven divisions known as nipàtas. Each
nipàta is divided again into groups called vaggas which usually con-
tain ten suttas. The discourses are arranged in progressive numerical
order, each nipàta containing suttas with items of dhamma, begin-
ning with one item and moving up by units of one till there are
eleven items of dhamma in each sutta of the last nipàta, Hence the
name Aïguttara meaning ‘increasing by one item’. The rst nipàta,
Ekaka Nipàta, provides in each sutta single items of dhamma called
the Ones; the second nipàta, Duka Nipàta, contains in each sutta two
items of dhamma called the Twos, and the last nipàta, Ekàdasaka
Nipàta, is made up of suttas with eleven items of dhamma in each,
called the Elevens.
Aïguttara Nikàya constitutes an important source book on Buddhist psychology and ethics, which provides an enumerated summary of all the essential features concerning the theory and practice of the Dhamma. A unique chapter entitled Etadagga Vagga of Ekaka Nipàta enumerates the names of the foremost disciples amongst the bhikkhus, bhikkhunãs, upàsakas, upàsikàs, who had achieved pre-eminence in one sphere of attainment or meritorious activity, e.g. the Venerable Sàriputta in Intuitive Wisdom and Knowledge (Paññà); the Venerable Mahà Moggallàna in supernormal powers (Iddhi); Bhikkhunã Khema in Paññà; Bhikkhunã Uppalavaõõa in Iddhi; the Upàsaka Anàthapiõóika and the Upàsikà Visàkhà in alms-giving (Dàna); and so on.
(1) Ekaka Nipàta Pàëi
This group contains single items of dhamma which form the subject matter of discourses given by the Buddha at Sàvatthi to the numerous bhikkhus residing there. But some of the suttas were given by the Venerable Sàriputta or the Venerable ânanda.
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(a) There is no one sight, sound, smell, taste and touch other than that
of a woman which can captivate and distract the mind of a man; conversely there is no one sight, sound, smell, taste and touch other than
that of a man which can captivate and distract the mind of a woman. (paras 1 to 10)
(b) There is no other single thing that brings about so much disadvantage and unhappiness as an undeveloped and uncultivated mind. A developed and cultivated mind brings about bene t and happiness. (paras 28 to 31)
(c) No other single thing changes so quickly as the mind. The mind is intrinsically pure and bright; it is de led by greed, hatred and ignorance. (paras 48, 49)
(d) If a bhikkhu practises the meditation of loving-kindness, and develops it even for the short duration of a ngersnap, he is regarded as following the advice of the Buddha, acting according to his instructions. Such a bhikkhu deserves to eat the alms-food offered by the people. (paras 53, 54)
(e) There is only one person whose appearance in the world brings welfare and happiness to the many, brings bene t, welfare and happi-
ness to devas and men. It is a Tathàgata, a fully Enlightened Buddha.
It is impossible for two Enlightened Buddhas to appear simultaneously in the same world system. (paras 170 to 174)
(f ) It is impossible for a person possessed of right views, i.e. a
Sotàpanna, to regard any conditioned formation as permanent, happi-
ness, Self (nicca, sukha, atta). It is possible only for an uninstructed
worldling to regard anything as permanent, happiness, Self. (paras
268 to 270)
(g) If one thing is developed and frequently practised, the body is calmed, the mind is calmed, discursive thinking is stilled, ignorance is shed, knowledge arises, delusion of self is eliminated, evil tendencies are eradicated, the fetters are removed. That one thing is the mindful contemplation of the body. (paras 571 to 576)
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(2) Duka Nipàta Pàëi
(a) There are two things to be borne in mind: not to be content
with what has been achieved in the process of development, i.e. even
with the attainment of jhànas or inner lights (which indicates a cer-
tain stage of Insight meditation), and to resolve to struggle unremit-
tingly and strenuously until realization of the goal, the enlightenment.
(para 5)
(b) There are two potentialities of men, to do good or to do evil. It is possible to abandon evil; abandoning of evil brings bene t, and happiness. It is also possible to cultivate the good. Cultivation of the good brings bene t and happiness too. (para 19)
(c) Two things are conducive to attainment of liberation in two ways:
Concentration Meditation and Insight Meditation. If concentration
is developed, the mind becomes developed and passion fades away
resulting in liberation of mind. If insight is developed, wisdom is devel-
oped and ignorance fades away resulting in liberation by knowledge.
(para 32)
(d) There are two persons one can never repay: mother and father. Even if one should live a hundred years during which one attends upon one’s mother and father, heaps all one’s attention, love and personal service on them, one can never repay them for having, brought up, fed and guided one through this life.
But if a person causes his parents who are non-believers to become established in the faith and to take refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saügha; if he causes his parents who do not observe the precepts to become established in morality; if he causes his miserly parents to become generous so that they come to share their wealth with the poor and the needy; if he causes his ignorant parents to become established in the knowledge of the Four Truths, then such a person repays and more than repays his parents for what they have done for him. (paras 33, 34)
(e) There are two kinds of happiness. The happiness of the home life and the happiness of homelessness; the happiness of homelessness is superior.
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The happiness of the senses and the happiness of renunciation; the happiness of renunciation is superior.
Tainted happiness and untainted happiness; … Carnal and noncarnal happiness; … and ignoble and noble happiness; … Bodily and mental happiness; mental happiness is superior. (paras 65 to 71)
(3) Tika Nipàta Pàëi
(a) The fool can be known by three things, by his conduct in deed, word and thought; so also the wise man can be known by three things, by his conduct in deed, word and thought. (para 3)
(b) There are three places a sovereign king should not forget: his birth place, the place where he was crowned as king and the site of battle in which he conquered his enemies. There are three places a bhikkhu should not forget: the place of renunciation, the place where he achieved the knowledge of the Four Noble Truths and the place where he attained Arahatship. (para 12)
(c) He who devotes himself earnestly to his business in the morning, in the daytime and in the evening, will prosper, and grow in wealth; the bhikkhu who devotes himself earnestly to development of concentration in the morning, in the daytime and in the evening will progress and gain advancement in his spiritual work. (para 19)
(d) These three types of persons are found in the world: One with a mind like an open sore; one with a mind like a ash of lightning; one with a mind like a diamond.
One who is irascible and very irritable, displaying anger, hatred and sulkiness; such a one is said to be a person with a mind like an open sore.
One who understands the Four Noble Truths correctly is said
to have a mind like a ash of lightning. One who has destroyed the
mind-intoxicating de lements and realized the liberation of mind and
the liberation by knowledge is said to have a mind like a diamond.
(para 25)
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(e) There are these three kinds of individuals in the world: One who speaks words reeking with foul smell; one who speaks words of fragrance; and one who speaks words sweet as honey. (para 28)
(f ) There are three root causes for the origination of actions (kamma):
greed, hatred and ignorance. An action done in greed, hatred and
ignorance will ripen wherever the individual is reborn; and wherever
the action ripens, there the individual reaps the fruit (vipàka) of
that action, be it in this life, in the next life or in future existences.
(para 38)
(g) He who prevents another from giving alms hinders and obstructs three persons. He causes obstruction to the meritorious act of the donor; he obstructs the recipient in getting his gift; he undermines and harms his own character. (para 58)
(h) Three dangers from which a mother cannot shield her son nor the son his mother: Old age, disease and death. (para 63)
(i) The well-known sutta, Kesamutti Sutta also known as Kàlàma
Sutta, appears as the fth sutta in the Mahàvagga of the Tika Nipàta.
At Kesamutta, a small town in the Kingdom of Kosala, the Buddha
thus exhorted the Kàlàmas, the inhabitants of the town: “Do not be
led by reports or traditions, or hearsay. Do not be led by the authority
of religious texts, nor by mere logic or inference, nor by considering
appearances, nor by speculative opinion, nor by seeming possibilities,
nor because one’s own teacher has said so. O Kàlàmas, when you
know for yourselves that certain things are wrong, unwholesome,
bad, then give them up; when you know for yourselves that certain
things are right, wholesome, good, then accept them, follow them.”
(para 66)
(j) A bhikkhu devoted to the holy life should pay equal attention
to three factors in turn, namely, concentration, energetic effort and
equanimity, and not exclusively to one of these factors only. If he
gives regular attention to each of them, his mind will become soft,
pliant, malleable, lucid and well concentrated, ready to be directed
to whatever mental states are realizable by supernormal knowledge.
(para 103)
(k) There are three rare persons in the world: a Tathàgata who is a perfectly Enlightened One is rare in the world; a person who can
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expound the Teaching and Discipline as taught by the Buddha is rare in this world; and a person who is grateful and thankful is rare in the world. (para 115)
(1) Whether a Tathàgata appears in the world or not, the fact remains as a rm and inevitable condition of existence that all conditioned formations are impermanent, that all conditioned formations are subject to suffering, that all things are devoid of self. (para 137)
(4) Catukka Nipàta Pàëi
(a) These four persons are found in the world: he who goes with the stream; he who goes against the stream; he who stands rm; he who has crossed over to the other shore and stands on dry land.
The person who indulges in sense desires and commits wrong deeds is one who goes with the stream. He who does not indulge in sense desires or commit wrong deeds, but lives the pure, chaste life, struggling painfully and with dif culty to do so is one who goes against the stream. He who stands rm is the person who, having destroyed the ve lower fetters, is reborn spontaneously in Brahma realm, whence he realizes Nibbàna without ever returning to the sensuous sphere. The one who has gone to the other shore standing on dry land is the person who has destroyed all the mental intoxicants, and who has realized, in this very life, by himself, the liberation of the mind and liberation by knowledge. (para 5)
(b) There are four right efforts: (i) The energetic effort to prevent evil,
unwholesome states of mind from arising; (ii) the energetic effort to
get rid of evil, unwholesome states of mind that heave already arisen;
(iii) the energetic effort to arouse good, wholesome states of mind
that have not yet arisen; (iv) the energetic effort to develop and bring
to perfection the good and wholesome states of mind already arisen.
(para 13)
(c) As a Tathàgata speaks, so he acts; as he acts, so he speaks. Therefore he is called a Tathàgata. (para 23)
(d) There are four highest kinds of faith: The Tathàgata, the holiest and fully enlightened, is the highest among all living beings. Among
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all conditioned things, the Noble Path of Eight Constituents is the high-
est. Among all conditioned and unconditioned things, Nibbàna is the
highest. Amongst all groups of men, the Order of the Tathàgata, the
Saügha made up of the four pairs of noble men, the eight Ariyas, is
the highest.
For those who have faith in the highest, namely, the Buddha, the Path, the Nibbàna and the Ariyas the highest resultant effects (result of action) will be theirs. (para 34)
(e) There are four ways of dealing with questions: (i) Some should
be given direct answers, (ii) others should be answered by way of
analysing them, (iii) some questions should be answered by counter-
questions, (iv) lastly, some questions should simply be put aside.
(para 42)
(f ) There are four distortions (vipallàsas) in perception, thought and view. To hold that there is permanence in the impermanence; to hold that there is happiness in suffering; to hold that there is atta where there is no atta; to hold that there is pleasantness (subha) in that which is foul. (para 49)
(g) When Nakulapità and Nakulamàtà express their wish to the Buddha to be in one another’s sight as long as the present life lasts and in the future life as well, the Buddha advises them to try to have the same faith, the same virtue, the same generosity and the same wisdom; then they will have their wish ful lled. (paras 55-56)
(h) He who gives food gives four things to those who receive it. He gives them long life, beauty, happiness and strength. The donor himself will be endowed with long life, beauty, happiness and strength wherever he is born in the human or the deva world. (para 57)
(i) There are four subjects not t for speculative thought (Acinteyyàni).
They are: the speci c qualities of a Buddha (Buddhavisayo); a person’s
jhàna attainment; the results of Kamma; and the nature of the world
(loka cintà). These imponderables are not to be pondered upon; which,
if pondered upon, would lead one to mental distress and insanity.
(para 77)
(j) There are four things concerning which no one whether samaõa, bràhmaõa, deva, Màra or anyone else in the world can give a guarantee:
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(i) That what is liable to decay should not decay;
(ii) that what is liable to illness should not fall ill;
(iii) that what is liable to die should not die; and
(iv) that no resultant effects should come forth from
those evil deeds done previously. (para 182)
(k) There are four ways by which a person’s character may be judged:
His virtue can be known by a wise and intelligent person paying
close attention after living together with him for a very long time. His integrity can be known by a wise and intelligent person by having dealings with him, paying close attention over a long period of time. His fortitude can be known by a wise and intelligent person by observing him with close attention in times of misfortune. His wisdom can be judged by a wise and intelligent person when conversing with him on various subjects over a long period of time. (para 192)
(l) There are four things conducive to the growth of wisdom: associating with a good person; hearing the good Dhamma; maintaining a right attitude of mind and leading a life in accordance with the Dhamma. (para 248)
(5) Pañcaka Nipàta Pàëi
(a) There are ve strengths possessed by a person in training for higher knowledge: faith, shame (to do evil), moral dread, energy and insight-knowledge. He believes in the enlightenment of the Buddha; he feels ashamed of wrong conduct in deed, word and thought; he dreads anything evil and unwholesome; he arouses energy to abandon everything unwholesome and to acquire everything that is wholesome; he perceives the phenomenon of constant rising and ceasing and is thus equipped with insight which will nally lead him to Nibbàna, destruction of suffering. (para 2)
(b) There are also other ve strengths, namely, faith, energy, mind-
fulness, concentration and insight-knowledge. The strength of faith is seen in the four characteristic qualities of a Stream-winner; the strength of energy is seen in the four Right Efforts; the strength of mindfulness is seen in the Four Methods of Steadfast Mindfulness and
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the strength of concentration is seen in the four jhànas; the strength of insight-knowledge is seen in the perception of the phenomenon of constant rising and ceasing, an insight which will nally lend to Nibbàna. (para 14)
(c) Impurities that de le gold are iron, tin, lead, silver, and other metals. Impurities that de le mind are sensuous desire, ill will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and worry, sceptical doubts. (para 23)
(d) A giver of alms surpasses a non-giver in ve aspects, namely, in life-span, beauty, happiness, fame and power, whether both be reborn in the deva world or the human world. This difference in ve aspects will persist till liberation is achieved. There is then no distinction between the liberation of one and the other or between one arahat and the other. (para 31)
(e) There are ve contemplations which ought to be practised by everyone, bhikkhus or layfolks, men and women:
‘I am certain to become old. I cannot avoid ageing.
‘I am certain to become ill and diseased. I cannot avoid illness. ‘I am certain to die. I cannot avoid death.
‘All things dear and beloved will not last. They will be subject to change and separation.
‘My kamma (past and present actions) is my only property, kamma is my only heritage, kamma is the only cause of my being, kamma is my only kin, my only protection. Whatever actions I do, good or bad, I shall become their heir.’ (para 57)
(f ) Five standards which should be set up for teaching the Dhamma: the Dhamma should be taught in graduated discourses; the Dhamma should be given as a well-reasoned discourse; the Dhamma should be given out of compassion and sympathy; the Dhamma should not be given for the sake of worldly gain and advantage; the Dhamma should be taught without alluding to oneself or others. (para 159)
(g) There are ve ways of getting rid of a grudge: If a grudge arises towards any person, then one should cultivate loving-kindness, or compassion or equanimity towards him. Or one should pay no atten-
tion to him and give no thought to him. Or one may apply the thought: his only property is his actions; whatever he does, good or bad, he
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will be heir to that. In these ways, all grudges that have arisen can be removed. (para 161)
(h) Wrong occupations which should not be followed by a lay disciple: Trading in arms and weapons; trading in living beings; trading in meat; trading in intoxicants; trading in poison. (para 177)
(6) Chakka Nipàta Pàëi
(a) There are six things which are unsurpassed: The noblest things
seen, the noblest things heard, the noblest gain, the noblest learning,
the noblest service, and the noblest re ection. The sight of the
Tathàgata or the Tathàgata’s disciples is the noblest thing seen. The
hearing of the Dhamma from the Tathàgata or his disciples is the
noblest thing heard. Faith in the Tathàgata or his disciples is the
noblest gain. Learning supreme virtue (adhisãla), supreme mind devel-
opment (adhicitta), supreme wisdom (adhipaññà) is the noblest learn-
ing. Serving the Tathàgata or his disciples is the noblest service.
Re ecting on the virtues of the Tathàgata or his disciples is the noblest
re ection. (para 30)
(b) There are six kinds of suffering in the world for one who indulges in sense-pleasures: poverty, indebtedness, owing interest, being demanded repaying, being pressed and harassed by creditors, imprisonment.
Similarly in the Teaching of the Ariyas, a person is regarded to be
poor and destitute who lacks faith in things that are meritorious, who has
no shame and no scruples, no energy and no understanding of things that
are good, and who conducts himself badly in deed, word and thoughts.
(para 45)
(c) There are six steps to gain liberation: Sense-control provides the
basis for morality. Morality gives the foundation to Right Concentra-
tion. Right Concentration provides the basis for understanding of the
true nature of physical and mental phenomena. With understanding
of the true nature of physical and mental phenomena comes disen-
chantment and non-attachment. Where there is disenchantment and
non-attachment, there arises the knowledge and vision of liberation.
(para 50)
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(d) There are six things to be known: Sense-desires, feelings, perceptions, moral intoxicants (àsavas), kamma and dukkha should be known, their causal origin should be known, their diversity, their resulting effects, their cessation and the way leading to their cessation should be known.
The way leading to the cessation of all these dhammas is the Noble Path of Eight Constituents. (para 63)
(e) There are six things which appear very rarely in the world: Rare is
the appearance in the world of a Perfectly Enlightened Buddha; rare
is the appearance of one who teaches the Dhamma and Vinaya as
proclaimed by the Buddha; rare it is to be reborn in the land of the
Ariyas; rare it is to be in possession of unimpaired physical and mental
faculties; rare it is to be free from dumbness and stupidity; rare it
is to be endowed with the desire for doing good, wholesome things.
(para 96)
(f ) There are six bene ts in realizing the Sotàpatti Fruition: (i) rm faith in the Dhamma ; (ii) impossibility of falling back; (iii) limit to suffering in the round of existences (only seven more existences); (iv) being endowed with supramundane knowledge which is not shared by the common worldling; (v) and (vi) clear understanding of causes and phenomena arising therefrom. (para 97)
(7) Sattaka Nipàta Pàëi
(a) There are seven factors for winning respect and esteem of fellow
bhikkhus: having no desire for gain; not wanting to be shown rever-
ence but indifferent to attention; being ashamed of doing evil; being
fearful of doing evil; and having little want; and having the right view.
(para 1)
(b) A bhikkhu becomes an eminent eld for sowing seeds of merit, when he knows the text of the Teaching, knows the meaning of the Teaching, also knows himself, knows the proper limit for acceptance of offerings, knows the proper time for various activities, knows his audience, and knows the spiritual tendency of an individual. (para 68)
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(c) If a bhikkhu develops his mind in the four methods of Steadfast Mindfulness, the four Right Efforts, the four bases of Psychic Power, the ve Faculties, the ve Strengths, the Seven Factors of Enlightenment, the Noble Path of Eight Constituents, he will be freed of the mental intoxicants, without any attachment, whether he wishes or not for liberation. (para 71)
(d) Short is the life of man, just like the dew-drop on the tip of a blade of grass; a bubble appearing on the water when rain falls; a line drawn on water with a stick; a mountain stream; a lump of spittle on the tip of the tongue; a piece of meat thrown into an extremely hot iron pot; and a cow being led to be slaughtered, whenever she lifts a leg, she will be closer to slaughter, closer to death. (para 74)
(e) Those teachings that lead to disenchantment, entire turning away from worldliness, non-attachment, cessation and calm, direct knowl-
edge, enlightenment and Nibbàna — such teachings may be taken as the true Dhamma and Discipline, as the Buddha’s Teaching. (para 83)
(8) Aññhaka Nipàta Pàëi
(a) There are eight bene ts accruing from practice of meditation on
loving-kindness: Whosoever practises meditation on loving-kindness
enjoys sound sleep, wakes up fresh and well, is not disturbed by
bad dreams, is regarded with esteem by men, is treated with respect
by non-humans, is accorded protection by devas, is not hurt by re,
poison or weapons and is destined to reappear in the Brahma realm.
(para 1)
(b) There are eight worldly conditions, the vicissitudes of life that keep the world turning round: gain, loss, fame, disrepute, praise, blame, happiness, suffering. (para 546)
(c) There are eight strengths: The strength of child lies in crying; of
a woman in her anger; of a bandit in his arms; of a king in his sovereignty; of an unwise man in censure and reviling; of a wise man in
careful consideration of pros and cons; of a man of knowledge in caution; and the strength of a bhikkhu lies in his fortitude and forbearance. (para 27)
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(d) Eight great re ections of the Venerable Anuruddha on the Dhamma: This Dhamma is for one with few wants, not for one who wants much. This Dhamma is for the contented, not for one hard to be satis ed. This Dhamma is for one who loves solitude, not for one who loves company. This Dhamma is for the energetic, not for the indolent. This Dhamma is for one of vigilant mindfulness, not for the heedless. This Dhamma is for one of concentrated mind, not for the distracted. This Dhamma is for the wise, not for the unintelligent. This Dhamma is for one who delights in Nibbàna, not for one who rejoices in worldliness (conceit, craving and wrong view). (para 30)
(e) There are eight types of speech by an Ariya: Having not seen, he says he has not seen; having not heard, he says he has not heard; having not sensed, he says he has not sensed; having not known, he says he has not known. Having seen, he says he has seen; having heard, says he has heard; having sensed, he says he has sensed and having known, he says he has known. (para 68)
(9) Navaka Nipàta Pàëi
(a) Nine practices not indulged in by Arahats: An Arahat does not intentionally take the life of a being; does not take, with the intention of stealing, what is not given; does not engage in sexual intercourse; does not speak what is not true knowing that it is not true; does not enjoy the pleasures of the senses; is not biased through favouritism, through hatred, through delusion or through fear. (para 7)
(b) There are nine characteristics of a layman’s residence which a
bhikkhu should not visit or stay in: Where a bhikkhu is not greeted
or shown signs of welcome, or offered a seat; where alms are kept
hidden; where little is given away although much can be afforded;
where inferior alms are offered although better alms are available;
where the offering is made in a disrespectful manner; where the
layman does not come near the bhikkhu to listen to the dhamma,
and where little interest is shown in the exposition of the dhamma.
(para 17)
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(c) There are nine ways in which a grudge is formed: He has done me
harm, he is doing me harm, he will do me harm; he has done harm
to one dear to me, he is doing harm to one dear to me, he will do
harm to one dear to me; he has done good to one disliked by me; he
is doing good to one disliked by me, he will do good to one disliked by
me. (para 29)
(d) There are nine things which should be eliminated in order to achieve realization of Arahatta Phala: Lust, ill will, ignorance, anger, grudge, ingratitude, envy, jealousy, meanness. (para 62)
(10) Dasaka Nipàta Pàëi
(a) There are ten bene ts of being established in sãla, morality: One who is established in sãla feels pleased; feeling pleased he feels glad; feeling glad, he is delightfully satis ed; being delightfully satis ed he becomes calm; when he is calm, he feels happiness; when he feels happiness, his mind becomes concentrated; with concentrated mind, he sees things as they really are; seeing things as they really are, he becomes disenchanted and dispassionate towards them; when there is no more passion or attachment, he achieves liberation of mind and liberation by knowledge. (para 1)
(b) There are ten fetters: Personality belief (Sakkàyadiññhi), sceptical doubts, mistaking mere rites and ceremony as the true Path, sensedesire, ill will, attachment to Råpa realm, attachment to Aråpa realm, conceit, restlessness, ignorance. (para 12)
(c) Just as a young man or a woman looks into the mirror to nd out
if there are any blemishes on the face, so also it is necessary for a
bhikkhu to engage in occasional self-examination to see whether cov-
etousness, ill will, sloth and torpor have arisen in him or not, whether
worry and excitement, and doubts exist in him, whether he is free
from anger and his mind is de led or not by unwholesome thoughts;
whether his body is at ease without restlessness; whether he is beset
by laziness or not; and whether he has concentration of mind with clear
comprehension. (para 51)
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(d) There are ten dhammas possessed by one who has become accomplished, an Arahat: Right View, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Concentration, Right Knowledge, Right Liberation. (para 112)
(11) Ekàdasaka Nipàta Pàëi
(a) There are eleven kinds of destruction any one of which is likely
to befall a bhikkhu who reviles the fellow bhikkhus of the commu-
nity: Lack of progress in his efforts; declining from the stage already
achieved; tainted and de led understanding of the Dhamma; being
overcome by his own conceit; unhappiness in leading the holy life;
liability to commit offences against the disciplinary rules; likelihood
of reverting to the household life; likelihood of being af icted with an
incurable disease; likelihood of becoming mentally deranged; dying
with a confused mind and likelihood of being reborn in the Nether
Worlds. (para 6)
(b) There are eleven bene ts derived from cultivation and development of loving-kindness, when frequently practised and rmly established: One sleeps soundly and wakes peacefully with no bad dreams; one is regarded with esteem by men; is treated with respect by nonhumans; is protected by devas; is unharmed by re, poison or weapons; his mind is easily concentrated; the features of his face are serene; he will die with an unconfused mind; if he does not attain to Arahatship, he will be reborn in the Brahma realm. (para 15)
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Chapter VIII
Khuddaka Nikàya
Of the ve Nikàyas, Khuddaka Nikàya contains the largest number of treatises (as listed below) and the most numerous cate-
gories of dhamma. Although the word “Khuddaka” literally means “minor” or “small”, the actual content of this collection can by no
means be regarded as minor, including as it does the two major divi-
sions of the Piñaka, namely, the Vinaya Piñaka and the Abhidhamma
Piñaka according to one system of classi cation. The miscellaneous
nature of this collection, containing not only the discourses by the
Buddha but compilations of brief doctrinal notes mostly in verse,
accounts of personal struggles and achievements by theras and therãs
also in verse, the birth stories, the history of the Buddha etc., may
account for its title.
The following is the list of treatises as approved by the Sixth International Buddhist Synod.
Khuddaka Nikàya
(a) Vinaya (b) Abhidhamma (c) Suttas not
Piñaka
(1) Khuddaka Pàñha (2) Dhammapada
(3) Udàna
(4) Itivuttaka
(5) Suttanipàta
(6) Vimànavatthu
Piñaka
(7) Petavatthu (8) Theragàthà (9) Therãgàthà (10) Jàtaka
(11) Niddesa
(Mahà, Cåëa)
(12) Pañisaübhidà
Magga
included in the
rst four Nikàyas
(13) Apadàna
(14) Buddhavaüsa (15) Cariyà Piñaka (16) Netti
(17) Peñakopadesa
(18) Milinda Pañhà
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(1) Khuddakapàñha Pàëi
First of the treatises in this Nikàya, Khuddakapàñha, contains “readings of mirror passages” most of which are also found in other parts of Tipiñaka. It is a collection of nine short formulae and
suttas used as a manual for novices under training, namely, (a) the three refuges (b) the Ten Precepts (c) the thirty-two parts of the body (d) Simple Dhammas for novices in the form of a catechism (e) Maïgala Sutta (f ) Ratana Sutta (g) Tirokuñña Sutta (h) Nióhikaõóa Sutta and (i) Metta Sutta.
Taking refuge in the Three Gems, the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saügha, by reciting the formula, “I take refuge in the Buddha, I take refuge in the Dhamma, I take refuge in the Saügha,” is a con-
scious act of expression of complete faith in the Three Gems, not mere profession of super cial belief nor a rite of traditional piety. It implies (i) one’s humility; (ii) acceptance of the Triple Gems as one’s guiding principles and ideals; (iii) acceptance of discipleship and (iv) homage.
In the section on ‘Kumàra pañha,’ questions for young boys, the dhamma is tailored to suit the young intellect of novices:
What is the One?
What are the Two?
What are the Three?
What are the Four?
What are the Five?
What are the Six?
What are the Seven?
What are the Eight?
What are the Nine?
What are the Ten?
— The Nutriment which sustains the life
of beings.
— Nàma and Råpa.
— Pleasant, Unpleasant, Neutral
Vedanàs.
— The Four Noble Truths.
— The ve groups of grasping. — The six bases of senses.
— The seven factors of enlightenment. — The Noble Path of Eight Constituents. — The nine abodes or types of beings. — The ten demeritorious courses of
action.
Mahà Maïgala Sutta, the discourse on the great blessings, is a famous sutta cherished highly in all Buddhist countries. It is a compre-
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hensive summary of Buddhist ethics for the individual as well as for society, composed in elegant verses. The thirty-eight blessings enumerated in the sutta as unfailing guides throughout one’s life start with advice on ‘avoidance of bad company’ and provide ideals and practices basic to all moral and spiritual progress, for the welfare and happiness of the individual, the family and the community. The nal blessing is on the development of the mind which is unruf ed by vagaries of fortune, affected by sorrow, cleansed of de lements and which thus gains liberation — the mind of an Arahat.
The Ratana Sutta was delivered by the Buddha when Vesàlã was
plagued by famine, disease etc. He had been requested by the Licchavã
Princes to come from Ràjagatha to Vesàlã. The sutta was delivered for
the purpose of countering the plagues, by invocation of the truth of
the special qualities of the Three Gems, the Buddha, the Dhamma and
the Saügha.
The Metta Sutta was taught to a group of bhikkhus who were troubled by non-human beings while sitting in meditation at the foot of secluded forest trees. The Buddha showed them how to develop loving-kindness towards all beings, the practice which will not only protect them from harm but also will serve as a basis for insight through attainment of jhàna.
The Khuddakapàñha which is a collection of these nine formulae
and suttas appears to be arranged in such a way as to form a continu-
ous theme demonstrating the practice of the holy life: how a person
accepts the Buddha’s Teaching by taking refuge in the Three Gems;
then how he observes the Ten Precepts for moral puri cation. Next
he takes up a meditation subject, the contemplation of thirty-two con-
stituents of the body, to develop non-attachment. He is shown next
the virtues and merits of giving and how one handicaps oneself by not
performing acts of merit. In the meanwhile he safeguards himself by
reciting the Maïgala Sutta and provides protection to others by recit-
ing the Ratana Sutta. Finally, he develops loving-kindness towards all
beings, thereby keeping himself safe from harm, at the same time he
achieves jhànic concentration which will eventually lead him to reach
the goal of spiritual life, Nibbàna, by means of knowledge of Insight
and the Path.
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(2) The Dhammapada Pàëi
It is a book of the Tipiñaka which is popular and well-known not only in Buddhist countries but also elsewhere. The ‘Dhammapada’ is a collection of the Buddha’s words or basic and essential principles of the Buddha’s Teaching. It consists of 423 verses arranged according to topics in twenty-six vaggas or chapters.
Verse 183 gives the teachings of the Buddha in a nutshell:
Abstain from all evil; Promote (develop) what is good and purify
your mind. Each stanza is packed with the essence of Truth which
illumines the path of a wayfarer. Many are the Dhammapada verses
which nd their way into the writings and everyday speech of the Bud-
dhists. One can get much sustenance and encouragement from the
Dhammapada not only for spiritual development but also for everyday
living.
The Dhammapada describes the path which a wayfarer should follow. It states (in verses 277, 278 and 279) that all conditioned things are transitory and impermanent; that all conditioned things are subject to suffering; and that all things (dhammas) are insubstantial, incapable of being called one’s own. When one sees the real nature of things with (Vipassanà) insight, one becomes disillusioned with the charms and attractions of the Five Aggregates. Such disillusionment constitutes the path of purity (Nibbàna).
Verse 243 de nes the highest form of impurity as ignorance (avijjà) and states that the suffering in the world can be brought to an end only by the destruction of craving or hankering after sensual pleasures. Greed, ill will and ignorance are described as dangerous as
re and unless they are held under restraint, a happy life is impossible both now and thereafter.
Avoiding the two extremes, namely, indulgence in a life of sensuous pleasures and the practice of self-morti cation, one must follow the Middle Path, the Noble Path of Eight Constituents to attain perfect Peace, Nibbàna. Attainment to the lowest stage (Sotàpatti Magga) on this Path shown by the Buddha is to be preferred even to the possession of the whole world (V. 178). The Dhammapada emphasizes that one makes or mars oneself, and no one else can help one to rid oneself of impurity. Even the Buddhas cannot render help; they can only show the way and guide; a man must strive for himself.
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The Dhammapada recommends a life of peace and non-violence and points out the eternal law that hatred does not cease by hatred, enmity is never overcome by enmity but only by kindness and love (V.5). It advises to conquer anger by loving-kindness, evil by good, miserliness by generosity, and falsehood by truth.
The Dhammapada contains gems of literary excellence, replete with appropriate similes and universal truths and is thus found appealing and edifying by readers all the world over. It serves as a digest of the essential principles and features of the Buddha Dhamma as well as of the wisdom of all the ages.
(3) Udàna Pàëi
An udàna is an utterance mostly in metrical form inspired by a particularly intense emotion. This treatise is a collection of eighty joyful utterances made by the Buddha on unique occasions of sheer bliss; each udàna in verse is accompanied by an account in prose of the circumstances that led to their being uttered.
For example, in the rst Bodhivagga Sutta are recorded the rst words spoken aloud by the newly Enlightened Buddha in three stanzas beginning with the famous opening lines: “Yadà have pàtubhavanti dhammà, âtàpino jhàyato bràhmaõassa.”
For seven days after his Enlightenment, the Buddha sat at the foot of the Bodhi tree feeling the bliss of liberation. At the end of seven days, he emerged from this (Phala Samàpatti) sustained absorption in Fruition-Mind, to deliberate upon the principle of Dependent Origination: When this is, that is (Imasmiü sati, idaü hoti); this having arisen, that arises (Imassuppàdà, idaü uppajjati); when this is not, that is not (Imasmiü asati, idaü na hoti); this having ceased, that ceases (Imassa nirodhà, idaü nirujjhati).
In the rst watch of the night, when the principle of the origin
of the whole mass of suffering was thoroughly grasped in a detailed
manner in the order of arising, the Buddha uttered the rst stanza of
joy:
“When the real nature of things becomes clear to the ardently meditating recluse, then all his doubts vanish, because he understands what that nature is as well as its cause.”
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In the second watch of the night, his mind was occupied with the principle of Dependent Origination in the order of ceasing. When the manner of cessation of suffering was thoroughly understood, the Buddha was moved again to utter the second stanza of jubilation:
“When the real nature of things becomes clear to the ardently meditating recluse, then all his doubts vanish, because he perceives the cessation of causes.”
In the third watch of the night, the Buddha went over the detailed formula of the principle of Dependent Origination, Pañicca Samuppàda, in both the orders of arising and ceasing. Then having mastered the doctrine of Dependent Origination very thoroughly, the Buddha uttered the third stanza of solemn utterance:
“When the real nature of things becomes clear to the ardently meditating recluse, then like the sun that illumines the sky, he stands repelling the dark hosts of Màra.”
(4) Itivuttaka Pàëi
The fourth treatise contains 112 suttas divided into four nipàtas with verses and prose mixed, one supplementing the other. Although the collection contains the inspired sayings of the Buddha as in Udàna, each passage is preceded by the phrase ‘Iti vuttaü Bhagavatà’, ‘thus was said by the Buddha,’ and reads like a personal note book in which are recorded short pithy sayings of the Buddha.
The division into nipàtas instead of vaggas denotes that the col-
lection is classi ed in ascending numerical order of the categories of
the dhamma as in the nipàtas of the Aïguttara. Thus in Lkaka Nipàta
are passages dealing with single items of the dhamma: “Bhikkhus,
abandon craving; I guarantee attainment to the stage of an Anàgàmã if
you abandon craving.” In Duka Nipàta, each passage deals with units
of two items of the dhamma: There are two forms of Nibbàna dhàtu,
namely, Sa-upàdisesa Nibbàna dhàtu, with the ve khandhas still
remaining, and Anupàdisesa Nibbàna dhàtu, without any khandha
remaining.
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(5) Suttanipàta Pàëi
As well-known as Dhammapada, Sutta Nipàta is also a work in verse with occasional introductions in prose. It is divided into ve vaggas: (i) Uraga Vagga of 12 suttas; (ii) Cåëa Vagga of 14 suttas; (iii) Mahà Vagga of 12 suttas; (iv) Aññhaka Vagga of 16 suttas and (v) Pàràyana Vagga of 16 questions.
In the twelve suttas of the Uraga Vagga are found some important teachings of the Buddha which may be practised in the course of one’s daily life:
“True friends are rare to come by these days; a show of friendship very often hides some private ends. Man’s mind is de led by self-interest. So, becoming disillusioned, roam alone like a rhinoceros.”
(Khaggavisàõa Sutta)
“Not by birth does one become an outcast, not by birth does one become a bràhmaõa;
By one’s action one becomes an outcast, by one’s action one becomes a bràhmaõa.”
(Vasala Sutta)
“As a mother even with her life protects her only child, so let one cultivate immeasurable loving-kindness towards all living beings.”
(Mettà Sutta)
Pàràyana Vagga deals with sixteen questions asked by sixteen brahmin youths while the Buddha is staying at Pàsànaka Shrine in the country of Magadha. The Buddha gives his answers to each of the questions asked by the youths. Knowing the meaning of each ques-
tion and of the answers given by the Buddha, if one practises the Dhamma as instructed in this sutta, one can surely reach the Other Shore, which is free from ageing and death. The Dhamma in this sutta is known as Pàràyana because it leads to the Other Shore, Nibbàna.
(6) Vimàna Vatthu Pàëi
Vimàna means mansion. Here it refers to celestial mansions gained by beings who have done acts of merit. In this text are eightyve verses grouped in seven vaggas; in the rst four vaggas, celestial
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females give an account of what acts of merit they have done in previous existences as human beings and how they are reborn in deva realm where magni cent mansions await their appearance. In the last three vaggas, the celestial males tell their stories.
The Venerable Mahà Moggalàna who can visit the deva realm brings back these stories as told him by the deva concerned and recounts them to the Buddha who con rms the stories by supplying more background details to them. These discourses are given with a view to bring out the fact that the human world offers plenty of opportunities for performing meritorious acts. The other objective for such discourses is to refute the wrong views of those who believe that nothing exists after this life (the annihilationists) and those who maintain that there is no resultant effect to any action.
Of the eighty- ve stories described, ve stories concern those
who have been reborn in deva world having developed themselves to
the stage of Sotàpanna in their previous existences; two stories on
those who have made obeisance to the Buddha with clasped hands;
one on those who had expressed words of jubilation at the ceremony
of building a monastery for the Saügha; two stories on those who had
observed the moral precepts; two stories on those who had observed
the precepts and given alms; and the rest deal with those who have
been reborn in the deva world as the wholesome result of giving alms
only.
The vivid accounts of the lives of the devas in various deva abodes serve to show clearly that the higher beings are not immortals, nor creators, but are also evolved, conditioned by the results of their previous meritorious deeds; that they too are subject to the laws of anicca, dukkha and anatta and have to strive themselves to achieve the deathless state of Nibbàna.
(7) Peta Vatthu Pàëi
“The stories of petas” are graphic accounts of the miserable states of beings who have been reborn in unhappy existences as a consequence of their evil deeds. There are fty-one stories, divided into four vaggas, describing the life of misery of the evil doers, in direct contrast to the magni cent life of the devas.
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Emphasis is again laid on the bene cial effects of giving; whereas
envy, jealousy, miserliness, greed and wrong views are shown to be
the causes for appearance in the unhappy state of petas. The chief
suffering in this state is dire lack of food, clothing and dwelling
for the condemned being. A certain and immediate release from
such miseries can be given to the unfortunate being if his former
relatives perform meritorious deeds and share the merit with him.
In Tirokuññapeta Vatthu, a detailed account is given on how King
Bimbisàra brings relief to his former relatives who are unfortunately
suffering as petas, by making generous offer of food, clothing and
dwelling places to the Buddha and his company of bhikkhus and shar-
ing the merit, thus accrued, to the petas who have been his kith and
kin in previous lives.
(8) The Thera Gàthà Pàëi
and
(9) The Therã Gàthà Pàëi
These two treatises form a compilation of delightful verses uttered by some two hundred and sixty-four theras and seventy-three therãs through sheer exultation and joy that arise out of their religious devotion and inspiration These inspiring verses gush forth from the hearts of bhikkhus and bhikkhunãs after their attainment of Arahatship as an announcement of their achievement and also as statement of their effort which has led to their nal enlightenment.
It may be learnt from these jubilant verses how a tri ing incident in life, a trivial circumstance can become the starting point of spir-
itual effort which culminates in supreme liberation. But for some of the theras, the call has come early to them to forsake the homelife and take to the life of a homeless recluse. Their struggle has been hard because of the inner ght between the forces of good and evil. They have had a good ght and they have won by dint of resolution and ardent determination. The crippling bonds of greed, hatred and ignorance have been broken asunder and they are freed. In sheer exul-
tation, they utter forth these inspiring verses, proclaiming their free-
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dom and victory. Some of these theras reach the sublime height of poetic beauty when they recount their solitary life in the quiet glades and groves of forest, the beauteous nature that forms their surround-
ings, and the peace and calm that have facilitated their meditation.
Although the verses in the Therã Gàthà lack the poetic excellence
and impassioned expression of love of solitude that characterise the
verses in the Thera Gàthà, they nevertheless re ect the great piety
and un inching resolution with which the therãs have struggled to
reach the goal. One distinguishing feature of the struggle of the therãs
is that many of them receive the nal impetus to seek solace in holy
life through emotional imbalance they have been subject to, for exam-
ple, loss of the dear ones as in the case of Pañàcàrã, or through intense
personal suffering over the death of a beloved son as suffered by Kisà
Gotamã.
Both the Thera Gàthà and the Therã Gàthà provide us with shining, inspiring models of excellence, so consoling and so uplifting, so human and true to life, leading us on to the path of the holy life, stimulating us when our spirit drops, our mind ags, and guiding us through internal con icts and set-backs.
These gàthàs may be enjoyed simply as beautiful poems with exquisite imagery and pleasing words or they may be contemplated on as inspiring messages with deep meaning to uplift the mind to the highest levels of spiritual attainment.
“Rain god! My abode has a roo ng now for my comfortable living; it will shield me from the onset of wind and storm. Rain god! Pour down to thy heart’s content; my mind is calm and unshakeable, free from fetters. I dwell striving strenuously with untiring zeal. Rain god! Pour down to thy heart’s content.” (Verse 325)
The bhikkhu has now his ‘abode’ of the ve khandhas well protected by ‘the roo ng and walls’ of sense restraints and paññà. He lives thus comfortably, well shielded from the rain and storm of lust, craving and attachments. Undisturbed by the pouring rain, and whirling wind of conceit, ignorance, hatred, he remains calm and composed, unpolluted. Although he lives thus in security and comfort of liberation and calm, he keeps alert and mindful, ever ready to cope with any emergency that may arise through lack of mindfulness.
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(10) Jàtaka Pàëi
Birth-stories of the Buddha
These are stories of the previous existences of Gotama Buddha,
while he was as yet but a Bodhisatta. The Jàtaka is an extensive work
in verses containing ve hundred and forty-seven stories or previous
existences as recounted by the Buddha, (usually referred to in Burma
as 550 stories). The treatise is divided into nipàtas according to the
number of verses concerning each story; the one verse stories are clas-
si ed as Ekaka Nipàta, the two verse stories come under Duka Nipàta
etc. It is the commentary to the verses which gives the complete birth-
stories.
In these birth-stories are embedded moral principles and practices which the Bodhisatta had observed for self-development and perfection to attain Buddhahood.
(11) Niddesa Pàëi
This division of Khuddaka Nikàya consists of two parts: Mahà Niddesa, the major exposition which is the commentary on the fourth vagga (Aññhaka) of the Sutta Nipàta and Cåëa Niddesa, the minor exposition which is the commentary on the fth vagga (Pàràyana) and on the Khaggavisàõa Sutta in the rst vagga. Attributed to the Venerable Sàriputta, these exegetical works contain much material on the Abhidhamma and constitute the earliest forms of commentaries, providing evidence of commentarial tradition many centuries before the Venerable Buddhaghosa appeared on the scene.
(12) Pañisaübhidà Magga Pàëi
This treatise, entitled the Path of Analysis, is attributed to the Venerable Sàriputta. Dealing with salient teachings of the Buddha analytically in the style of the Abhidhamma, it is divided into three main vaggas, namely, Mahà Vagga, Yuganaddha Vagga and Paññà Vagga. Each Vagga consists of ten sub-groups, named kathàs, such as ¥àõa Kathà, Diññhi Kathà etc.
The treatment of each subject matter is very detailed and provides theoretical foundation for the practice of the Path.
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(13) Apadàna Pàëi
It is a biographical work containing the life stories (past and present) of the Buddha and his Arahat disciples. It is divided into two divisions: the Theràpadàna giving the life stories of the Buddha, of forty-one Paccekabuddhas and of ve hundred and fty-nine Arahats from the Venerable Sàriputta to the Venerable Raññhapàla; and Therãpadàna with the life stories of forty therã Arahats from Sumedhà Therã to Pesalà Therã.
Apadàna here means a biography or a life story of a particularly accomplished person, who has made a rm resolution to strive for the goal he desires, and who has ultimately achieved his goal, namely, Buddhahood for an Enlightened One, Arahatship for his disciples. Whereas the Thera Gàthà and the Therã Gàthà depict generally the triumphant moment of achievements of the theras and therãs, the Apadàna describes the up-hill work they have to undertake to reach the summit of their ambition. The Gàthàs and the Apadànas supple-
ment one another to unfold the inspiring tales of hard struggles and
nal conquests.
(14) Buddhavaüsa Pàëi History of the Buddhas
Buddhavaüsa Pàëi gives a short historical account of Gotama
Buddha and of the twenty-four previous Buddhas who had prophesied
his attainment of Buddhahood. It consists of twenty-nine sections in
verse.
The rst section gives an account of how the Venerable Sàriputta asks the Buddha when it was that he rst resolved to work for attainment of the Buddhahood and what pàramãs (virtues towards perfection) he had ful lled to achieve his goal of Perfect Enlightenment. In the second section, the Buddha describes how as Sumedha the hermit, being inspired by Dãpaïkara Buddha, he makes the resolution for the attainment of Buddhahood and how the Buddha Dãpaïkara gives the hermit Sumedha his blessing prophesying that Sumedha would become a Buddha by the name of Gotama after a lapse of four asaïkheyya and a hundred thousand kappas (world cycles).
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From then onwards, the Bodhisatta Sumedha keeps on practising
the ten pàramãs, namely, alms-giving, morality renunciation, wisdom,
perseverance, forbearance, truthfulness, determination, loving-kind-
ness and equanimity. The Buddha relates how he ful ls these pàramãs,
existence after existence, and how each of the twenty-four Buddhas, who
appeared after Dãpaïkara Buddha at different intervals of world cycles,
renewed the prophesy that he would become a Buddha by the name of
Gotama.
In sections three to twenty-seven are accounts of the twenty-
ve Buddhas including Gotama Buddha, giving details about each of
them with regard to birth, status, names of their parents, names of
their wives and children, their life-span, their way of renunciation,
duration of their efforts to attain Buddhahood, their teaching of the
Dhammacakka Sutta in the Migadàyavana, the names of their Chief
Disciples and their chief lay disciples. Each section is closed with an
account of where the Buddhas pass away and how their relics are dis-
tributed.
In the twenty-eighth section is given the names of three Buddhas, namely, Taõhaïkara, Medhaïkara and Saraõaïkara who lived before Dãpaïkara Buddha at different intervals of the same world cycle. The names of other Buddhas (up to Gotama Buddha) are also enumerated together with the name of the kappas in which they have appeared. Finally there is the prophesy by the Buddha that Metteyya Buddha would arise after him in this world.
The last section gives an account of how the Buddha’s relics are distributed and where they are preserved.
(15) Cariyà Piñaka
This treatise contains thirty- ve stories of the Buddha’s previous lives retold at the request of the Venerable Sàriputta. Whereas the Jàtaka is concerned with the Buddha’s previous existences from the time of Sumedha, the hermit, till he becomes Gotama Buddha, Cariyà Piñaka deals only with thirty- ve of the existences of the Bodhisatta in this last world cycle. The Venerable Sàriputta’s object in making the request is to bring out into bold relief the indomitable will, the supreme effort, the peerless sacri ce with which the Bodhisatta
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conducts himself in ful lment of the ten pàramãs (virtues towards Perfection).
The Bodhisatta has, throughout innumerable ages, ful lled the
ten pàramãs for countless number of times. Cariyà Piñaka records such
performances in thirty- ve existences, selecting seven out of the ten
pàramãs, and recounts how each pàramã is accomplished in each of
these existences. Ten stories in the rst vagga are concerned with
accumulation of virtues in alms-giving, the second vagga has ten sto-
ries on the practice of morality and the last vagga mentions fteen
stories, ve of them dealing with renunciation, one with rm determi-
nation, six with truthfulness, two with loving-kindness and one with
equanimity.
(16) Netti
and
(17) Peñakopadesa
The two small works, Netti, made up of seven chapters, and
Peñakopadesa, made up of eight chapters, are different from the other
books of the Tipiñaka because they are exegetical and methodological
in nature.
(18) Milindapañha Pàëi
Milindapañha Pàëi is the last of the books which constitute Khud-
daka Nikàya. It records the questions asked by King Milinda and the answers given by the Venerable Nàgasena some ve hundred years after the Parinibbàna of the Buddha. King Milinda was Yonaka (Graeco-Bactrian) ruler of Sàgala. He was very learned and highly skilled in the art of debating. The Venerable Nàgasena, a fully accom-
plished Arahat, was on a visit to Sàgala at the request of the Saügha.
King Milinda, who wanted to have some points on the Dhamma clari ed, asked the Venerable Nàgasena abstruse questions concerning the nature of man, his survival after death, and other doctrinal aspects of the Dhamma. The Venerable Nàgasena gave him satisfactory replies on each question asked. These erudite questions and answers on the Teaching of the Buddha are compiled into the book known as the Milindapañha Pàëi.
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Chapter IX
What Is Abhidhamma Piñaka?
(a) Abhidhamma, the Higher Teaching of the Buddha.
Abhidhamma is the third great division of the Piñaka. It is a huge collection of systematically arranged, tabulated and classi ed doctrines of the Buddha, representing the quintessence of his Teaching. Abhidhamma means Higher Teaching or Special Teaching; it is unique in its abstruseness, analytical approach, immensity of scope and conduciveness to one’s liberation.
The Buddha dhamma has only one taste, the taste of liberation. But in Suttanta discourses, the Buddha takes into consideration the intellectual level of his audience, and their attainments in pàramã. He therefore teaches the dhamma in conventional terms (vohàra vacana), making references to persons and objects as I, we, he, she, man, woman, cow, tree, etc. But in Abhidhamma the Buddha makes no such concessions; he treats the dhamma entirely in terms of the ultimate reality (Paramattha sacca). He analyses every phenomenon into its ultimate constituents. All relative concepts such as man, mountain, etc. are reduced to their ultimate elements which are then precisely de ned, classi ed and systematically arranged.
Thus in Abhidhamma everything is expressed in terms of khand-
has, ve aggregates of existence; àyatanas, ve sensory organs and
mind, and their respective sense objects; dhàtu, elements; indriya,
faculties; sacca, fundamental truths; and so on. Relative conceptual
objects such as man, woman, etc. are resolved into ultimate compo-
nents of khandhas, àyatanas, etc. and viewed as an impersonal psycho-
physical phenomenon, which is conditioned by various factors and
is impermanent (anicca), suffering (dukkha) and is without a perma-
nent entity (anatta).
Having resolved all phenomena into ultimate components analytically (as in Dhammasaïgaõã and Vibhaïga) it aims at synthesis by de ning inter-relations (paccaya) between the various constituent factors (as in Paññhàna). Thus Abhidhamma forms a gigantic edi ce of knowledge relating to the ultimate realities which, in its immensity of scope, grandeur, subtlety, and profundity, properly belongs only to the intellectual domain of the Buddha.
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(b) The seven books of Abhidhamma.
The Suttanta Piñaka also contains discourses dealings with ana-
lytical discussions and conditional relationship of the ve aggregates.
Where the need arises subjects such as the ve aggregates, àyatanas,
etc. are mentioned in the sutta discourses. But they are explained
only brie y by what is known as the Sutta Method of Analysis (Sut-
tanta bhàjanãya), giving bare de nitions with limited descriptions. For
example, khandhas, the ve aggregates, are enumerated as the corpo-
real aggregate, the aggregate of sensation, the aggregate of percep-
tion; the aggregate of mental formations (volitional activities) and the
aggregate of consciousness. They may be dealt with a little more com-
prehensively; for instance, the corporeal aggregate may be further
de ned as corporeality of the past, the present or the future; the cor-
poreality which is internal or external, coarse or ne, inferior or supe-
rior, far or near. The Sutta Method of Analysis does not usually go
further than this de nition.
But the Abhidhamma approach is more thorough, more penetrating, breaking down each corporeal or mental component into the ultimate, the most in nitesimal unit. For example, Råpakkhandha, corporeal aggregate, has been analysed into twenty-eight constituents; Vedanàkkhandha, the aggregate of sensation, into ve; Saññàkkhandha, the aggregate of perception, into six; Sankhàrakkhandha, the aggregate of mental formations, into fty; and Viññànakkhandha, the aggregate of consciousness, into eighty-nine. Then each constituent part is minutely described with its properties and qualities and its place in the well arranged system of classi cation is de ned.
A complete description of things requires also a statement of how each component part stands in relation to other component parts. This entails therefore a synthetical approach as well, to study the interrelationship between constituent parts and how they are related to other internal or external factors.
Thus the Abhidhamma approach covers a wide eld of study, consisting of analytical and synthetical methods of investigation, describing and de ning minutely the constituent parts of aggregates, classifying them under well ordered heads and well arranged sys-
tems and nally setting out conditions in which they are related to each other. Such a large scope of intellectual endeavour needs to be
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encompassed in a voluminous and classi ed compilation. Hence the
Abhidhamma Piñaka is made up of seven massive treatises, namely, (i)
Dhammasaïgaõã, containing detailed enumeration of all phenomena
with an analysis of consciousness (citta) and its concomitant mental
factors (cetasikas); (ii) Vibhaïga, consists of eighteen separate sections
on analysis of phenomena quite distinct from that of Dhammasaïgaõã;
(iii) Dhàtukathà, a small treatise written in the form of a catechism,
discussing all phenomena of existence with reference to three catego-
ries, khandha, àyatana and dhàtu; (iv) Puggalapaññatti, a small trea-
tise giving a description of various types of individuals according to
the stage of their achievement along the Path; (v) Kathàvatthu, a
compilation by the Venerable Moggaliputta, the presiding thera of
the third Great Synod in which he discusses and refutes doctrines
of other schools in order to uproot all points of controversy on the
Buddha dhamma; (vi) Yamaka, regarded as a treatise on applied logic
in which analytical procedure is arranged in pairs; (vii) Paññhàna
a gigantic treatise which together with Dhammasaïgaõã, the rst
book, constitutes the quintessence of the Abhidhamma Piñaka. It is
a minutely detailed study of the doctrine of conditionality, based on
twenty-four paccayas, conditions or relations.
(c) Conventional Truth (Sammuti Sacca) and Ultimate Truth (Paramat-
tha Sacca).
Two kinds of Truth are recognised in the Abhidhamma according
to which only four categories of things namely, mind (consciousness),
mental concomitants, Materiality and Nibbàna are classed as the
Ultimate Truth; all the rest are regarded as apparent truth. When we
use such expressions as ‘I’, ‘you’, ‘man’, ‘woman’, ‘person’, ‘individual’,
we are speaking about things which do not exist in reality. By using
such expressions about things which exist only in designation, we are
not telling a lie; we are merely speaking an apparent truth, making
use of conventional language, without which no communication will
be possible.
But the Ultimate Truth is that there is no ‘person’, ‘individual’ or ‘I’ in reality. There exist only khandhas made up of corporeality, mind (consciousness) and mental concomitants. These are real in that they are not just designations, they actually exist in us or around us.
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Chapter X
Abhidhamma Piñaka
I. The Dhammasaïgaõã Pàëi
The Dhammasaïgaõã, the rst book of the Abhidhamma, and the Paññhàna, the last book, are the most important of the seven treatises of Abhidhamma, providing as they do the quintessence of the entire Abhidhamma.
Scheme of Classi cation in the Dhammasaïgaõã
(1) The Màtikà
The Dhammasaïgaõã enumerates all the dhammas (phenomena) i.e., all categories of nàma, namely, Consciousness and mental concomitant, and råpa, Corporeality. Having enumerated the phenomena, they are arranged under different heads to bring out their exact nature, function and mutual relationship both internally (in our own being) and with the outside world. The Dhammasaïgaõã begins with a complete list of heads called the Màtikà. The Màtikà serves as a classi ed table of mental constituents treated not only in the Dhammasaïgaõã but in the entire system of the Abhidhamma.
The Màtikà consists altogether of one hundred and twenty-two
groups, of which the rst twenty-two are called the Tikas or Triads,
those that are divided under three heads; and the remaining one hun-
dred are called the Dukas or Dyads, those that are divided under two
heads.
Examples of Triads are:
(a) Kusala Tika:
dhammas (i) that are moral, kusala,
(ii) that are immoral, akusala,
(iii) that are indeterminate, abyàkata.
(b) Vedanà Tika:
dhammas that (i) with pleasant feeling, are associated (ii) with painful feeling,
(iii) with neutral feeling.
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Examples of Dyads are:
(a) Hetu Duka: dhammas (i) that are roots, hetus
(ii) the are not roots, na-hetu.
(b) Sahetuka Duka: dhammas (i) that are associated with the
hetus
(ii) that are not associated with
the hetus.
The Màtikà concludes with a list of the categories of dhamma entitled Suttantika Màtikà made up of forty-two groups of dhamma found in the suttas.
(2) The four Divisions
Based on these Màtikàs of Tikas and Dukas, the Dhammasaïgaõã is divided into four Divisions:
(i) Cittuppàda Kaõóa Division on the arising of consciousness
and mental concomitants.
(ii) Råpa Kaõóa Division concerning corporeality.
(iii) Nikkhepa Kaõóa Division that avoids elaboration. (iv) Aññhakathà Kaõóa Division of Supplementary Digest.
Of the four divisions, the rst two, namely, Cittuppàda Kaõóa
and Råpa Kaõóa form the main and essential portion of the book. They set the model of thorough investigation into the nature, properties, function and interrelationship of each of the dhammas listed in
the Màtikà, by providing a sample analysis and review of the rst Tika, namely, the Kusala Tika of Kusala, Akusala and Abyàkata Dhamma. Cittuppàda Kaõóa deals with a complete enumeration of all the states
of mind that come under the headings of Kusala and Akusala; the
Råpa Kaõóa is concerned with all states of matter that come under
the heading of Abyàkata; mention is also made of Asaïkhata Dhàtu
(Nibbàna) without discussing it.
The Nikkhepa Kaõóa the third division, gives, not too elaborately nor too brie y, the summary of distribution of all the Tikas and Dukas, so that their full contents and signi cance will become comprehensible and fully covered.
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Aññhakathà Kaõóa, the last division of the book, is of the same nature as the third division, giving a summary of the dhammas under the different heads of the Tika and the Duka groups. But it provides it in a more condensed manner, thus forming a supplementary digest of the rst book of the Abhidhamma for easy memorizing.
(3) Order and classi cation of the types of Consciousness as discussed
in Cittuppàda Kaõóa.
The Cittuppàda Kaõóa rst gives a statement of the types of Consciousness arranged under the three heads of the rst Tika, namely, (i) Kusala Dhamma i.e., Meritorious Consciousness and its concomitants (ii) Akusala Dhamma i.e., Demeritorious Consciousness and its concomitants (iii) Abyàkata Dhamma i.e., Indeterminate Consciousness and its concomitants. The list of mental concomitants for each dhamma is fairly long and repetitive.
The statement of the types of Consciousness is followed by iden-
ti cation of the particular type e.g. Kusala Dhamma, in the form of
question and answer, with regard to the plane or sphere (bhåmi) of
Consciousness: Kàmàvacara, sensuous plane; Råpàvacara, plane of
form; Aråpàvacara, plane of no-form; Tebhåmaka, pertaining to all
the three planes; or Lokuttara, supramundane, not pertaining to the
three planes.
The type of Consciousness for each plane is further divided into
various kinds e.g., there are eight kinds of Kusala Dhamma for the sen-
suous plane: rst Kusala Citta, second Kusala Citta etc; twelve kinds
of Akusala Citta; eight kinds of Ahetuka Kusala Vipàka Citta and
eight kinds of Sahetuka Vipàka Citta under the heading of Abyàkata
Dhamma.
Then these various kinds are further analysed according to:
(i) Dhamma Vavatthàna Vara e.g., the particular quality, whether
accompanied by joy etc. i.e., somanassa, domanassa, sukha, dukkha, or
upekkhà.
(ii) Koññhàsa Vàra, the grouping of dhammas. There are twentythree categories of dhammas which result from synthetical grouping
of dhammas into separate categories such as khandhas, àyatanas, dhàtus etc.
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(iii) Suññata Vàra, which lays stress on the fact that there is no ‘self ’ (atta) or jãva behind all these dhammas; they are only composites, causally formed and conditioned, devoid of any abiding substance.
The same method of treatment is adopted for the akusala and abyàkata types of Consciousness.
(4) Råpa Kaõóa
Because Dhammasaïgaõã treats all the dhammas (nàmas as well
as råpas) in the same uniform system of classi cation, Råpa Kaõóa is
only a continuation of the distribution of the Dhamma under the heads
of the rst Tika, which begins in the rst division, Cittuppàda Kaõóa.
In the Cittuppàda Kaõóa, the enumeration of the Dhamma under the
head ‘Abyàkata’ has been only partially done, because abyàkata type
of Dhamma includes not only all the states of mind which are neither
meritorious nor demeritorious but also all states of matter and the
Asaïkhata Dhàtu or Nibbàna. The portion of Dhamma under the head-
ing of Abyàkata, which has been left out from Cittuppàda Kaõóa, is
attended to in this kaõóa.
The method of treatment here is similar, with the difference that
instead of mental concomitants, the constituents of matter, namely,
the four primary elements and the material qualities derived from
them with their properties and their relationships are analysed and
classi ed.
II. Vibhaïga Pàëi Book of Analysis
The second book of the Abhidhamma Piñaka, Vibhaïga, together with the rst book Dhammasaïgaõã and the third book Dhàtukathà, forms a closely related foundation for the proper and deep understanding of the Buddha’s Dhamma. Whereas Dhammasaïgaõã provides a bird’s eye view of the whole of the Tika and Duka groups with further systematic arrangements under classi ed heads, Vibhaïga and Dhàtukathà give a closer view of selected portions of those groups bringing out minute details.
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Thus, Koññhàsa Vàra in Dhammasaïgaõã explains what and how many khandha, àyatana, dhàtu, àhàra, indriya, jhànaïga etc. are included in the Tika and Duka groups. But it does not furnish com-
plete information about these dhammas. It is Vibhaïga which pro-
vides full knowledge concerning them, stating the exact nature of each dhamma, its constituents and its relationship to other dhammas.
The Vibhaïga is divided into eighteen Chapters each dealing with a particular aspect of the Dhamma; its full analysis and investigation into each constituent. The arrangement and classi cation into groups and heads follow the same system as in the Dhammasaïgaõã. Vibhaïga may therefore be regarded as complementary to Dhammasaïgaõã.
Vibhaïga explains comprehensively the following categories of Dhamma.
(i) Khandha
(ii) âyatana
(iii) Dhàtu
(iv) Sacca
(v) Indriya
(vi) Paticcasamuppàda (vii) Satipaññhàna
(viii) Sammappadhàna (ix) Iddhipàda
(x) Bojjhaïga
(xi) Magga
(xii) Jhàna
(xiii) Appammaññà
(xiv) Sikkhàpada
(xv) Pañisaübhidà
(xvi) ¥àõa
(xvii) Khuddhaka vatthu (xviii) Dhammahadaya
Each category is analysed end discussed in two or all the three of the following methods of analysis: Suttanta bhàjanãya — the meaning of the terms and the classi cation of the dhammas determined according to the Suttanta method; Abhidhamma bhàjanãya — the meaning of the terms and the classi cation of the dhammas determined according to the Abhidhamma method; Pañha pucchaka, discussions in the form of questions and answers.
It may be seen from the above list of the eighteen categories that they may be divided into three separate groups. The rst group
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containing numbers (i)-(vi) deals with mental and corporeal constituents of beings and two laws of nature to which they are constantly subjected viz: the Law of Impermanence and the Law of Dependent Origination. The second group containing numbers (vii)-(xii) is concerned with the practice of the holy life which will take beings out of suffering and rounds of existence. The remaining six categories serve as a supplement to the rst two groups, supplying fuller information and details where necessary.
III. Dhàtukathà Pàëi
Although this third book of Abhidhamma Piñaka is a small treatise, it ranks with the rst two books forming an important trilogy, which must be thoroughly digested for the complete understanding of the Abhidhamma. Vibhaïga, the second book, has one complete chapter devoted to the analysis of dhàtus, but the subject matter of dhàtu is so important that this separate treatise is devoted to it for a thorough consideration. The method of analysis here is different from that employed in the Vibhaïga.
Dhàtukathà studies how the dhammas listed in the Tikas and
Dukas of the Màtikà are related to the three categories of khandha, àyatana and dhàtu in their complete distribution i.e., ve khandhas, twelve àyatanas and eighteen dhàtus. These are discussed in fourteen
ways of analytical investigations which constitute the fourteen chapters of Dhàtukathà.
IV. Puggalapaññatti Pàëi
Abhidhamma is mainly concerned with the study of abstract
truths in absolute terms. But in describing the dhammas in their vari-
ous aspects, it is not possible to keep to absolute terms only. Inevita-
bly, conventional terms of every day language have to be employed in
order to keep the lines of communication open at all. Abhidhamma
states that there are two main types of conventional usage; the rst
type is concerned with terms which express things that actually exist
in reality and the second type describes things which have no exist-
ence in reality.
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The rst three books of the Abhidhamma investigate the absolute Truth of Dhamma in a planned system of detailed analysis employing such terms as Khandha, âyatana, Dhàtu, Sacca and Indriya. These terms are mere designations which express things that exist in reality and are therefore classed as the conventional usage of the rst type. To the second type of conventional usage belong such expressions as man, woman, deva, individual etc., which have no existence in reality, but nevertheless are essential for communication of thoughts.
It becomes necessary therefore to distinguish between these two
types of apparent truths. But as the terms Khandha, âyatana, Dhàtu,
Sacca and Indriya have been elaborately dealt with in the rst three
books, they are dealt with here only brie y. The terms used in the
second type concerning individuals are given more weight and space
in the treatise, hence its title Puggalapaññatti, designation of individu-
als. Different types of individuals are classi ed, in ten chapters of
the book, after the manner of enumeration employed in Aïguttara
Nikàya.
V. Kathàvatthu Pàëi
Kathàvatthu, like Puggalapaññatti, falls outside the regular system of the Abhidhamma. It does not directly deal with the abstruse nature of the Dhamma. It is mainly concerned with wrong views such as “Person exists; Self exists; Jãva exists” which were prevalent even in
the Buddha’s time, or wrong views such as “Arahat falls away from Arahatship” which arose after the Parinibbàna of the Buddha.
About two hundred and eighteen years after the Parinibbàna of
the Buddha there were altogether Eighteen Sects, all claiming to be
followers of the Buddha’s Teaching. Of these only the Theravàdins
were truly orthodox, while the rest were all schismatic. The Emperor
Asoka set about removing the impure elements from the Order with
the guidance and assistance of the Elder Moggaliputtatissa who was
an accomplished Arahat. Under his direction, the Order held in con-
cord the Uposatha ceremony which had not been held for seven years
because of dissensions and the presence of false bhikkhus in the
Order.
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At that assembly, the Venerable Moggaliputtatissa expounded on points of views, made up of ve hundred orthodox statements and ve hundred statements of other views, in order to refute the wrong views that had crept into the Saügha and that might in the future arise. He followed the heads of discourses, Màtikà, outlined by the Buddha himself and analysed them in detail into one thousand statements of views. This collection of statements of views was recited by one thousand selected theras who formed the Third Great Synod, to be incorporated into the Abhidhamma Piñaka.
The style of compilation of this treatise is quite different from that of other treatises, written as it is in the form of dialogue between two imaginary debators, one holding the heterodox views of different sects and the other representing the orthodox views.
VI. Yamaka Pàëi
The Dhammasaïgaõã, the Vibhaïga and the Dhàtukathà exam-
ine the Dhamma and their classi cations as they exist in the world of reality, named Saïkhàraloka. Puggalapaññatti and Kathàvatthu deal with beings and individuals which also exist in their own world of apparent reality, known as Sattaloka. Where the dhamma of Saïkhàraloka and beings of the Sattaloka co-exist is termed the Okàsaloka. Yamaka sets out to de ne and analyse the interrelation-
ship of dhammas and puggalas as they exist in these three worlds.
This is accomplished in the form of pairs of questions, which gives it the title of Yamaka. The logical process of conversion (anuloma) and complete inversion (pañiloma) is applied to determine the complete import and limit of a term in its relationship with the others. An equivocal nature of a term (saüsaya) is avoided by showing, through such arrangement of questions, how other meanings of the term do not t for a particular consideration.
The following pairs of questions may be taken as an example:
To the question ‘May all råpa be called Råpakkhanda?’ the answer is ‘Råpa is also used in such expressions as piya råpa (loveable nature), eva råpa (of such nature), but there it does not mean Råpakkhandha.’
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But to the question ‘May all Råpakkhandha be called råpa?’ the answer is ‘yes’, because Råpakkhandha is a very wide term and includes such terms as piya råpa, eva råpa etc.
VII. Paññhàna Pàëi
Paññhàna Pàëi, the seventh and last book of the Abhidhamma, is
called the Mahà Pakàraõa, the ‘Great Book’ announcing the supreme
position it occupies and the height of excellence it has reached in its
investigations into the ultimate nature of all the dhammas in the Uni-
verse.
The Dhammasaïgaõã gives an enumeration of these dhammas classifying them under the Tika and Duka groups. Vibhaïga analyses them to show what dhammas are contained in the major categories of khandhas, àyatanas, dhàtus etc. Dhàtukathà studies the relation-
ship of dhammas listed in the Màtikà with each component of these major categories of khandhas, àyatanas and dhàtus. Yamaka resolves ambiguity in the internal and external relationship of each dhamma. Paññhàna forming the last book of the Abhidhamma brings together all such relationship in a co-ordinated form to show that the dham-
mas do not exist as isolated entities but they constitute a well ordered system in which the smallest unit conditions the rest of it and is also being conditioned in return. The arrangement of the system is so very intricate, complex, highly thorough and complete that it earns for this treatise the reputation of being deep, profound and unfathomable.
An outline of the Paññhàna system of relations.
Paññhàna, made up of the words “pa and ñhàna”, means a system
of relations. The Great Treatise of Paññhàna arranges all conditioned
things, (twenty-two Tikas and one hundred Dukas of the Màtikà),
under twenty-four kinds of relations, describes and classi es them
into a complete system for understanding the mechanics of the uni-
verse of Dhamma. The whole work is divided into four great divisions,
namely:
(i) Anuloma Paññhàna which studies the instances in which
paccaya relations do exist between
the dhammas.
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(ii) Paccanãya Paññhàna which studies the instances in which
paccaya relations do not exist between
the dhammas.
(iii) Anuloma Paccanãya Paññhàna which studies the instances
in which some of the paccaya relations
do exist between the dhamma s but the others do not.
(iv) Paccanãya Anuloma Paññhàna which studies the instances
in which some of the paccaya relations
do not exist between the dhammas, but the others do exist.
The twenty-four paccaya relations are applied to these four great divisions in the following six ways:
(i) Tika Paññhàna
(ii) Duka Paññhàna
The twenty-four paccayas are applied
to the dhammas in their twenty-four Tika groups.
The twenty-four paccayas are applied to the dhammas in their one hundred Duka groups.
(iii) Duka-Tika Paññhàna The twenty four paccayas are applied
to the dhammas in their one hundred
Dukas mixed with twenty-two Tika groups.
(iv) Tika-Duka Paññhàna The twenty-four paccayas are applied
to the dhammas in their twenty-two
Tikas mixed with one hundred Duka groups.
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(v) Tika-Tika Paññhàna The twenty-four paccayas are applied
to the dhammas in the twenty-two
Tika groups mixed with one another.
(vi) Duka-Duka Paññhàna The twenty-four paccayas are applied
to the dhammas in their one hundred
Duka groups mixed with one another.
The four paññhànas of the four great divisions when permuted with the six paññhànas of the six ways result in twenty-four treatises which constitute the gigantic compilation of abstract Abhidhamma known as the Mahàpakàraõa or as the commentary and sub-commentary name it “Anantanaya Samanta Paññhàna” to denote its profundity and fathomless depth.
The End